tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-20764205581332036372023-11-16T09:55:28.730-08:00FUNNYbiology and scienceAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.comBlogger19125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-83437334433689009002014-07-25T14:14:00.001-07:002014-07-25T14:14:19.365-07:00BIOCOMPACT (Biology Competition and Application) Season 5 |disamperin.com Jawa Timur<a href="http://disamperin.com/jawatimur/event/biocompact-biology-competition-and-application-season-5-2/#.U9LIguHaYmM.blogger">BIOCOMPACT (Biology Competition and Application) Season 5 |disamperin.com Jawa Timur</a><br /><br />
<br /><br />
<br /><br />
<div style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: none; color: #5f686e; font-family: Roboto, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 24px; outline: none; padding: 12px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">BIOCOMPACT (Biology Competition and Application) Season 5 diselenggarakan oleh HMJ Biologi Universitas Negeri Surabaya. Biocompact terdiri dari 2 event kompetisi, yaitu Olimpiade Biologi dan Lomba Daur Ulang Limbah SMA/Sederajat Tingkat Nasional 2014. Kedua kompetisi ini akan diikuti oleh siswa SMA/Sederajat dari seluruh Indonesia. Olimpiade akan diselenggarakan di 15 kota berdasarkan Rayon sebagai berikut:</div><div style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); border: none; color: #5f686e; font-family: Roboto, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 24px; outline: none; padding: 12px 0px; vertical-align: baseline;">Rayon 1 (Sumatra Utara) : Medan<br />Rayon 2 (Jakarta, Jawa Barat, dan DIY) : Jakarta, Bandung, dan Yogyakarta<br />Rayon 3 (Jawa Timur) : Surabaya, Pamekasan, Lamongan, Tuban, Malang, Jombang, Madiun, Kediri, dan Jember<br />Rayon 4 (Bali dan Kalimantan) : Negara dan Samarinda</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-55379800802048329952014-06-29T16:38:00.001-07:002014-06-29T16:38:20.829-07:00INFO LOMBA | Lomba 2014 | Update Setiap Hari: Olimpiade Biologi Universitas Negeri Surabaya<a href="http://www.info-lomba.com/2012/07/olimpiade-biologi-universitas-negeri.html?spref=bl">INFO LOMBA | Lomba 2014 | Update Setiap Hari: Olimpiade Biologi Universitas Negeri Surabaya</a>: BEMJ Biologi Universitas Negeri Surabaya Present: BIO COMPACT "BIOLOGY COMPETITION APPLICATION" OLIMPIADE BIOLOGI DAN LOMBA KAR...Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-21615492647082889082012-12-16T17:59:00.000-08:002012-12-16T17:59:04.104-08:00XENOBIOTICS and REDOX METABOLISM ....<h2>
What are xenobiotics?</h2>
Most of the ingested material and compounds are foods and drugs.
Some of these cannot be utilized by the body as foods. These may be
harmful if they accumulated in cells, as they have no metabolic
function. These are called xenobiotics. <br />
<h2>
Where does the term xenobiotic come from?</h2>
The tem xenobiotic is derived from Greek words “xenos” meaning
foreigner, stranger and “bios” meaning life added to the Greek suffix
for adjectives “tic”. <br />
<h2>
Examples of xenobiotics</h2>
Xenobiotics include:<br />
<ul type="disc">
<li>synthetic drugs</li>
<li>natural poisons</li>
<li>food additives</li>
<li>environmental pollutants</li>
<li>antibiotics etc. </li>
</ul>
More than 200,000 xenobiotics have been identified and these are
metabolized and detoxified by xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. <br />
<h2>
Xenobiotic metabolism </h2>
In humans xenobiotics are metabolized by cytochrome P450 oxidases,
UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, and glutathione ''S''-transferases. These
enzymes acts in three stages to firstly oxidize the xenobiotic (phase
I) and then conjugate water-soluble groups onto the molecule (phase
II). The molecules from phase II that are water-soluble are then pumped
out of cells and in multicellular organisms may be further metabolized
before being excreted (phase III).<br />
<h2>
Two major phases of xenobiotic metabolism</h2>
<a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Metabolism.aspx">Metabolism</a> of xenobiotics thus occurs in two major phases. <br />
<strong>Phase I </strong><br />
This process is characterized by hydroxylation. This is carried out
by a variety of monooxygenases, also known as cytochrome P450s. These
Cytochrome P450s catalyze reactions that introduce one atom oxygen
delivered from molecular oxygen into the substrate, yielding a
hydroxylated product.<br />
<strong>Phase II </strong><br />
In this phase the hydroxylated species are conjugated with a
variety of hydrophilic compounds such as glucuronic acid, sulfate or
gluthione. This makes the compounds water soluble that can be easily
eliminated from the body.<br />
<h2>
Xenobiotics and oxidative stress</h2>
A related problem for aerobic organisms is oxidative stress caused by reactive oxygen free radicals. <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Oxidative-Stress.aspx">Oxidative stress</a>
is a large increase in the cellular reduction potential, or a large
decrease in the reducing capacity of the cellular redox couples. This
process involves formation of disulfide bonds during protein folding
that leads to production of reactive oxygen species such as hydrogen
peroxide. <br />
Free radicals cause a chain reactions leading to consecutive oxidation. These radicals attack molecules like fat, protein, <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-DNA.aspx">DNA</a>, sugar etc. <br />
Free radicals are removed by <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-are-Antioxidants.aspx">antioxidant</a> <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/Metabolites-What-are-Metabolites.aspx">metabolites</a> such
as glutathione and enzymes such as catalases and peroxidases.
Antioxidants neutralize free radicals before they can attack cell
proteins, <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-are-Lipids.aspx">lipids</a> and <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-are-Carbohydrates.aspx">carbohydrates</a>. They inhibit and delay the oxidative process. <br />
<em>Reviewed by April Cashin-Garbutt, BA Hons (Cantab)</em><br />
<h2>
Sources</h2>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://lbe.epfl.ch/page-37822-en.html">http://lbe.epfl.ch/page-37822-en.html</a></li>
<li><a href="http://ocw.jhsph.edu/courses/publichealthtoxicology/PDFs/Lecture2_Trush.pdf">http://ocw.jhsph.edu/courses/publichealthtoxicology/PDFs/Lecture2_Trush.pdf</a></li>
<li><a href="http://web2.uconn.edu/rusling/Amin.pdf">http://web2.uconn.edu/rusling/Amin.pdf</a></li>
</ul>
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-74845476303119669692012-12-16T17:48:00.001-08:002012-12-16T17:48:23.211-08:00WHAT IS METABOLISM ???
Metabolism is a term that is used to describe all chemical reactions
involved in maintaining the living state of the cells and the organism.
Metabolism can be conveniently divided into two categories:<br />
<ul type="disc">
<li>
Catabolism - the breakdown of molecules to obtain energy</li>
<li>
<a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Anabolism.aspx">Anabolism</a> - the synthesis of all compounds needed by the cells</li>
</ul>
Metabolism is closely linked to nutrition and the availability of
nutrients. Bioenergetics is a term which describes the biochemical or
metabolic pathways by which the cell ultimately obtains energy. Energy
formation is one of the vital components of metabolism.<br />
<h2>
Nutrition, metabolism and energy</h2>
Nutrition is the key to metabolism. The pathways of metabolism rely
upon nutrients that they breakdown in order to produce energy. This
energy in turn is required by the body to synthesize new proteins,
nucleic acids (<a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-DNA.aspx">DNA</a>, <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-RNA.aspx">RNA</a>) etc.<br />
Nutrients in relation to metabolism encompass bodily requirement for
various substances, individual functions in body, amount needed, level
below which poor health results etc.<br />
Essential nutrients supply energy (calories) and supply the necessary
chemicals which the body itself cannot synthesize. Food provides a
variety of substances that are essential for the building, upkeep, and
repair of body tissues, and for the efficient functioning of the body.<br />
The diet needs essential nutrients like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and around 20 other inorganic elements.
The major elements are supplied in <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-are-Carbohydrates.aspx">carbohydrates</a>, <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-are-Lipids.aspx">lipids</a>, and protein. In addition, vitamins, <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/Minerals-and-health.aspx">minerals</a> and water are necessary.<br />
<h2>
Carbohydrates in metabolism</h2>
Foods supply carbohydrates in three forms: starch, sugar, and cellulose
(fiber). Starches and sugars form major and essential sources of energy
for humans. Fibers contribute to bulk in diet.<br />
Body tissues depend on glucose for all activities. Carbohydrates and sugars yield glucose by <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Digestion.aspx">digestion</a> or metabolism.<br />
The overall reaction for the combustion of glucose is written as:<br />
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 -----> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy<br />
Most people consume around half of their diet as carbohydrates. This
comes from rice, wheat, bread, potatoes, pasta, macaroni etc.<br />
<h2>
Proteins in metabolism</h2>
Proteins are the main tissue builders in the body. They are part of
every cell in the body. Proteins help in cell structure, functions,
haemoglobin formation to carry oxygen, enzymes to carry out vital
reactions and a myriad of other functions in the body. Proteins are also
vital in supplying nitrogen for DNA and RNA genetic material and energy
production.<br />
Proteins are necessary for nutrition because they contain amino acids.
Among the 20 or more amino acids, the human body is unable to synthesize
8 and these are called essential amino acids.<br />
The essential amino acids include:<br />
<ul type="disc">
<li>
lysine</li>
<li>
tryptophan</li>
<li>
methionine</li>
<li>
leucine</li>
<li>
isoleucine</li>
<li>
phenylalanine</li>
<li>
valine</li>
<li>
threonine</li>
</ul>
Foods with the best quality protein are eggs, milk, soybeans, meats, vegetables, and grains.<br />
<h2>
Fat in metabolism</h2>
Fats are concentrated sources of energy. They produce twice as much
energy as either carbohydrates or protein on a weight basis.<br />
The functions of fats include:<br />
<ul type="disc">
<li>
helping to form the cellular structure;</li>
<li>
forming a protective cushion and insulation around vital organs;</li>
<li>
helping absorb fat soluble vitamins,</li>
<li>
providing a reserve storage for energy</li>
</ul>
Essential fatty acids include unsaturated fatty acids like linoleic,
linolinic, and arachidonic acids. These need to be taken in diet.
Saturated fats, along with <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/Cholesterol-What-is-Cholesterol.aspx">cholesterol</a>, have been implicated in <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Arteriosclerosis.aspx">arteriosclerosis</a> and heart disease.<br />
<h2>
Minerals and vitamins in metabolism</h2>
The minerals in foods do not contribute directly to energy needs but
are important as body regulators and play a role in metabolic pathways
of the body. More than 50 elements are found in the human body. About 25
elements have been found to be essential, since a deficiency produces
specific deficiency symptoms.<br />
Important minerals include:<br />
<ul>
<li>
<a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/Calcium-What-is-Calcium.aspx">calcium</a></li>
<li>
phosphorus</li>
<li>
iron</li>
<li>
sodium</li>
<li>
potassium</li>
<li>
chloride ions</li>
<li>
copper</li>
<li>
cobalt</li>
<li>
manganese</li>
<li>
zinc</li>
<li>
magnesium</li>
<li>
fluorine</li>
<li>
iodine</li>
</ul>
Vitamins are essential organic compounds that the human body cannot
synthesize by itself and must therefore, be present in the diet.
Vitamins particularly important in metabolism include:<br />
<ul>
<li>
<a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Vitamin-A.aspx">Vitamin A</a></li>
<li>
B2 (riboflavin)</li>
<li>
<a href="http://www.news-medical.net/health/Niacin-What-is-Niacin.aspx">Niacin</a> or <a href="http://www.news-medical.net/drugs/Nicotinic-Acid.aspx">nicotinic acid</a></li>
<li>
Pantothenic Acid etc.</li>
</ul>
<h2>
Metabolic pathways</h2>
The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic
pathways. These allow the basic chemicals from nutrition to be
transformed through a series of steps into another chemical, by a
sequence of enzymes.<br />
Enzymes are crucial to metabolism because they allow organisms to drive
desirable reactions that require energy. These reactions also are
coupled with those that release energy. As enzymes act as catalysts they
allow these reactions to proceed quickly and efficiently. Enzymes also
allow the regulation of metabolic pathways in response to changes in the
cell's environment or signals from other cells.<br />
<em>Reviewed by April Cashin-Garbutt, BA Hons (Cantab)</em><br />
<h2>
Sources</h2>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li>
<a href="http://www.unm.edu/%7Elkravitz/Article%20folder/Metabolism.pdf">http://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article%20folder/Metabolism.pdf</a></li>
<li>
<a href="http://www.biobreeders.com/images/Nutrition_and_Metabolism.pdf">http://www.biobreeders.com/images/Nutrition_and_Metabolism.pdf</a></li>
<li>
<a href="http://www.oup.com/us/static/companion.websites/9780199730841/McKee_Chapter8_Sample.pdf">http://www.oup.com/us/static/companion.websites/9780199730841/McKee_Chapter8_Sample.pdf</a></li>
<li>
<a href="http://cronus.uwindsor.ca/units/biochem/web/biochemi.nsf/18e8732806421826852569830050331b/7a371e9af805f74e85256a4f00538021/$FILE/Energy%20metabolism.pdf">http://cronus.uwindsor.ca/units/biochem/web/biochemi.nsf/18e8732806421826852569830050331b/7a371e9af805f74e85256a4f00538021/$FILE/Energy%20metabolism.pdf</a></li>
<li>
<a href="http://www.elmhurst.edu/%7Echm/vchembook/5900verviewmet.html">http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/5900verviewmet.html</a></li>
</ol>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-72672855729251909182012-12-11T00:51:00.004-08:002012-12-11T00:51:37.486-08:00What is Taxonomy and Where Did it Originate?Taxonomy is the method by which scientists, conservationists, and
naturalists classify and organize the vast diversity of living things on
this planet in an effort to understand the evolutionary relationships
between them. Modern taxonomy originated in the mid-1700s when
Swedish-born Carolus Linnaeus (also known as Carl Linnaeus or Carl von
Linné) published his multi-volume <em>Systema naturae</em>, outlining
his new and revolutionary method for classifying and, especially, naming
living organisms. Prior to Linnaeus, all described species were given
long, complex names that provided much more information than was needed
and were clumsy to use. Linnaeus took a different approach: he reduced
every single described species to a two-part, Latinized name known as
the “binomial” name. Thus, through the Linnaean system a species such as
the dog rose changed from long, unwieldy names such as <em>Rosa sylvestris inodora seu canina</em> and <em>Rosa sylvestra alba cum rubore, folio glabro</em> to the shorter, easier to use <em>Rosa canina</em>.
This facilitated the naming of species that, with the massive influx of
new specimens from newly explored regions of Africa, Asia, and the
Americas, was in need of a more efficient and usable system.<br />
Although trained in the field of medicine, botany and classification
were the true passions of Linnaeus and he actively explored northern
Europe and described and named hundreds of new plant species during his
lifetime. As well, Linnaeus spent a great deal of time describing and
naming new plant specimens that were sent to him from around the world
by other botanists, including from the newly explored regions of the New
World. Linnaeus classified this multitude of new plant species based
upon their reproductive structures, a method which is still largely in
use today. In fact, the majority of the species described by Linnaeus
are still recognized today, indicating how far ahead of his time he
truly was. Although somewhat rudimentary by today’s standards, Linnaeus’
methods of describing species in such a way as to represent the
relationships between them changed the face of taxonomy and allowed
biologists to better understand the complex natural world around us.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-43759871569521260302012-12-11T00:48:00.000-08:002012-12-11T00:48:33.656-08:00ECOSYSTEMS<b><span>What is a Biome?</span></b>
<br /> A biome is a large area with similar flora, fauna, and
microorganisms. Most of us are familiar with the <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/trforest.htm">tropical rainforests</a>, <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/tundra.htm">tundra</a> in the arctic regions,
and the evergreen trees in the <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/ccforest.htm">coniferous forests</a>.
Each of these large communities contain species that are adapted to its
varying conditions of water, heat, and soil. For instance, polar
bears thrive in the arctic while cactus plants have a thick skin to help
preserve water in the hot desert. To learn more about each of the
major biomes, click on the appropriate heading to the right.
<br />
<b><span>What is an Ecosystem?</span></b>
<br /> Most of us are confused when it comes to the words ecosystem
and biome. What's the difference? There is a slight difference
between the two words. An ecosystem is much smaller than a biome.
Conversely, a biome can be thought of many similar ecosystems throughout
the world grouped together. An ecosystem can be as large as the Sahara
Desert, or as small as a puddle or vernal pool.
<br /> Ecosystems are dynamic interactions between plants, animals,
and microorganisms and their environment working together as a functional
unit. Ecosystems will fail if they do not remain in balance.
No community can carry more organisms than its <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/food.htm">food</a>,
<a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/water.htm">water</a>, and shelter can accomodate. Food and
territory are often balanced by natural phenomena such as fire, disease,
and the number of predators. Each organism has its own niche, or
role, to play.
<br />
<br /> <b><span>How have humans affected the ecosystems?</span></b>
<br /> We have affected ecosystems in almost every way imaginable!
Every time we walk out in the wilderness or bulldoze land for a new parking
lot we are drastically altering an ecosystem. We have disrupted the
<a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/food.htm">food chain</a>, the <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/carbon.htm">carbon cycle</a>,
the <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/nitrogen.htm">nitrogen cycle</a>, and the <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/11353/water.htm">water
cycle</a>. Mining minerals also takes its toll on an ecosystem.
We need to do our best to not interfere in these ecosystems and let nature
take its toll.
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-45593692929970870912012-12-01T04:10:00.002-08:002012-12-01T04:10:29.314-08:00heart and circulation of snail.<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyO0IsWfyUyu5zvTHTo4QmVn3hVhi1ccuVv_GDZHWt0W_YrgIv-Zr2XLIC9G6JL27MIgUwFyF16M6hou86l6BSmEFEGOe7rOPlH5qDl6Yxe7lsUvoibdFc_BpO8f8v0ogZqtVUxdY6K0M/s1600/anatomie_circulatie.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><b>Interactive 3d-model</b></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyO0IsWfyUyu5zvTHTo4QmVn3hVhi1ccuVv_GDZHWt0W_YrgIv-Zr2XLIC9G6JL27MIgUwFyF16M6hou86l6BSmEFEGOe7rOPlH5qDl6Yxe7lsUvoibdFc_BpO8f8v0ogZqtVUxdY6K0M/s1600/anatomie_circulatie.gif" /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<b>Scheme<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2076420558133203637" name="scheme"></a> of the circulation:</b></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgy9rnTSInNc8aO8WYqndngXwxWJLkY1jDy1cXItnSHfklHpflk1TpQ7Zc6wvmkswUPuAFiSakRJw1PGpFeefLlFvbUE3ptPsuVyc6Jtqd12nOJK9bV7uuzDEQQfRVLMOJh833kCal6NGw/s1600/circulation_overview.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="288" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgy9rnTSInNc8aO8WYqndngXwxWJLkY1jDy1cXItnSHfklHpflk1TpQ7Zc6wvmkswUPuAFiSakRJw1PGpFeefLlFvbUE3ptPsuVyc6Jtqd12nOJK9bV7uuzDEQQfRVLMOJh833kCal6NGw/s320/circulation_overview.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<span class="comment">H = Head - cephalic hemocoel<br />
F = Foot hemocoel<br />
E = Oesophagus<br />
Vm= Visceral mass (hemocoel) <br />
aK = anterior (front) Kidney<br />
pK = posterior (back) Kidney<br />
A = Ampulla</span>
<span class="comment"> Au = Auricle<br />
V = Ventricle<br />
Aa = Aorta anterior<br />
Ap = Aorta posterior <br />
vS = Visceral sinus<br />
fS = Foot sinus</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
The blood circulation of the apple snail is a typical example of the circulation
in a <b>monocardia</b>: there is only one auricle that receives oxygen rich
blood from the lung and the gills and deoxygenated blood from the kidney. So
there is no separated blood circulation for oxygen rich and deoxygenated blood
like in mammals and birds. It's a less efficient system, but it fulfils the
needs of a snail very well.<br />
The<b> <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2076420558133203637" name="blood"></a>blood</b> of apple snails (and snails in general)
has two functions: <b>transpor</b>t of O<span class="commentsmall">2</span>,
CO<span class="commentsmall">2</span>, hormones, nutrition and waste products
and a <b>structural</b> function: a hydroskeleton. <br />
The transport capacity of the blood for O<span class="commentsmall">2</span>
and CO<span class="commentsmall">2</span> is enhanced by the chemical substance
hemocyanine in the blood cells. Hemocyanine fulfils the same function as haemoglobin
does in mammals (binding O<span class="commentsmall">2</span> and CO<span class="commentsmall">2</span>
to ease transportation), but is colourless in contrary to the red colour of
haemoglobin. <br />
As the body of a snail does not contain a skeleton to support the extension
movements, for example stretching out a <a href="http://www.applesnail.net/content/anatomy/senses.php#tentacle">tentacle</a>,
snails have to use another way: regulating the blood pressure in the body parts.
In other words: inflating and deflating parts of the body in combination of
muscle contraction to change shape. The regulation of the local blood is obtained
by controlling the input and output of the bloodflow by contracting and relaxing
small muscles that surround the veins.<br />
Retracting movements are done by simple muscle contraction, without the need
of fluid transportation.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dylZnqVa2_daLIRhobOESBg03wiJZ_Hoz6ph09yEDTVovAH1JqSqLdRnr3Wtct7ccrXadP7ZO15iz09Xekgog' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>Snail heart in action:</b></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0elBnMuSMk0MgjMdKlT2Gns_UCgLvTVeyPqK1iNW52VOz5s77YS2sG1ORyTJchQhwuyMe6k04oGrFkg0iab9mSic6mnqnh1-wwSPLKhjdh9r2vOi_5oux1_Yoi9AG1fnuDXzEKAsOar4/s1600/pomacea_can_heartbeat.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0elBnMuSMk0MgjMdKlT2Gns_UCgLvTVeyPqK1iNW52VOz5s77YS2sG1ORyTJchQhwuyMe6k04oGrFkg0iab9mSic6mnqnh1-wwSPLKhjdh9r2vOi_5oux1_Yoi9AG1fnuDXzEKAsOar4/s1600/pomacea_can_heartbeat.gif" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidfTv8jINroRaFvsrHvdS46jSVDreEJRrEiA3tmvYQoV-nEOdQ90mSOqikLLJgnxqKQGjotEDKh70vOXYj7iDIAGK2YzNBou161MN0OEIgIaQKxVgHTFu0SDXHYpDxWARa2k4JezhcmyQ/s1600/pomacea_can_heartillust.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEidfTv8jINroRaFvsrHvdS46jSVDreEJRrEiA3tmvYQoV-nEOdQ90mSOqikLLJgnxqKQGjotEDKh70vOXYj7iDIAGK2YzNBou161MN0OEIgIaQKxVgHTFu0SDXHYpDxWARa2k4JezhcmyQ/s1600/pomacea_can_heartillust.gif" /></a></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<br />
The <b>transport of the blood</b> to and from the organs occurs through arteries
(from heart to organs) and veins (from organs to heart). Snails don't have capillary
veins and arterioles, which means their blood doesn't flow within tube-like
structures (veins and arteries) during the whole circulation, but at the tissue
level the blood circulates free between the cells and structures embedded in
blood cavities (<b>hemocoels</b>) within the body (= <b>open circulation</b>).
<br />
<b>The <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2076420558133203637" name="circulation"></a>circulation and filtration of the blood:</b><br />
The <b>heart</b> of apple snails is well developed and consists of two chambers:
the auricle and the ventricle. <br />
The <b>auricle</b> is which receives the blood influx from the lung and the
kidney veins is much smaller then the ventricle. Inside the auricle, there are
many small muscle fibres connecting the opposite wall trough the lumen. The
walls have a spongy surface at the inside and a basal layer at the outside.
The blood is able to reach the basal membrane through the spongy surface. Contraction
is achieved by contracting these muscle fibres. <br />
The <b>ventricle</b> is much larger and has thick, muscular walls with many
spaces between the wall muscles, allowing the blood to be trapped in these semi-vescicles
and filtered through the basal membrane. In contrast with the auricular contraction,
the ventricular contraction is based on contraction of the wall muscles. The
mean ventricular pulse pressure of the African apple snail <i><a href="http://www.applesnail.net/content/lanistes.htm">Lanistes</a>
carinatus</i> is reported to be around 7.8 cm of water. <br />
The aortic <b>ampulla</b> functions as a compensation sac and compensates the
elevated blood pressure in the aorta during the contraction of the ventricle.
Besides its function to regulate the blood pressure, the ampulla also has a
function in the immune system as the walls of the ampulla consists of vacuolated
tissue with many phagocytes in it. These phagocytes possibly eliminate micro-organisms
from the bloodflow. The wall of the ampulla is relatively impermeable, excluding
the ampulla for blood filtration. <br />
Both the heart and the ampulla are embedded in the <b>pericard</b>, which is
connected with the posterior kidney through a renopericadial canal. The walls
of the pericard cover the heart and the ampulla and in the pericard cavity the
walls are covered with microvilli, small intercellular channels and ridges.
Near the renopericardial canal there are some mucous cells secreting mucus,
presumably to bind small particles to be transported to the kidney. <br />
The fluid excreted in the pericard cavity can be considered to be primary urine
and this fluid is transported to the kidneys for further filtration and resorption
of usable compounds (sodium and chlorine). <br />
The <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2076420558133203637" name="kidney"></a><b>kidney</b> or <b>nephridium</b> consists of two
parts: the posterior chamber which excretes uric acid and purines and the anterior
chamber which has osmoregulatory function.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJ9SOvp8IG0XNur2lQVHQjHBG1HUfX-CcG3OZdLr0qxrb7g4Tx6tuz-5git_AHH_1JL3arDX4fG76NmKnhDFFqA6gej5EjST12MR7shtGOpDAINF8_QedbqyZ-t5LP0cICFSHJG76N2Lk/s1600/pomacea_bridgesi_male_sectiona1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJ9SOvp8IG0XNur2lQVHQjHBG1HUfX-CcG3OZdLr0qxrb7g4Tx6tuz-5git_AHH_1JL3arDX4fG76NmKnhDFFqA6gej5EjST12MR7shtGOpDAINF8_QedbqyZ-t5LP0cICFSHJG76N2Lk/s1600/pomacea_bridgesi_male_sectiona1.jpg" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgesCuIM9XPdg3cJdYpn34x2Zq5HufIZAmqa4QJOjVSsTyqxAJ8UvDtWJKvTj9YLKNU5c0f9aGGUl1TfoJQzu-0qK-hvAhYyFyydN7epPJizTdXJjOcK_6prsyVQR9g0E0bLwlysWb2uzU/s1600/heartbeat_pic.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgesCuIM9XPdg3cJdYpn34x2Zq5HufIZAmqa4QJOjVSsTyqxAJ8UvDtWJKvTj9YLKNU5c0f9aGGUl1TfoJQzu-0qK-hvAhYyFyydN7epPJizTdXJjOcK_6prsyVQR9g0E0bLwlysWb2uzU/s1600/heartbeat_pic.gif" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
<br />
The <b>posterior kidney</b> chamber receives the primary urine from the pericard
cavity. The folds on the posterior chamber wall have a dense vascular network
and are covered with excretory, ciliated and mucous cells. The excretory cells
excrete uric acids and other purines from the blood into the lumen of the chamber
in which the primary urine flows. <br />
The <b>anterior kidney</b> chamber differs from the posterior chamber in that
the lumen is occluded with large lamina that covers the walls. These lamina
remarkably increase the surface area that comes in contact with the urine. The
epithelium on these lamina is almost entirely consisting of resorptive cells
that presumable resorb ions from the urine into the blood. <br />
The <b><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2076420558133203637" name="renal_aperture"></a>renal aperture</b> (urine opening) is situated
in the upper region of the <a href="http://www.applesnail.net/content/anatomy/foot_mantle.php#mantle_cavity">right mantle
cavity</a>. The urine produced by the kidneys is expelled here. <br />
The <b>aorta</b> with it's white calcareous granula in it's wall consists two
parts: the anterior and the posterior part. <br />
The <b>anterior aorta</b> connects the heart with the head (cephalic hemocoel)
and the foot (foot hemocoel), while the <b>posterior aorta</b> divides close
to the heart with one artery distributing the blood to the <a href="http://www.applesnail.net/content/anatomy/digestion.php">digestive
system</a> and the second serves several other organs (<a href="http://www.applesnail.net/content/anatomy/reproduction.php#male">testis</a>,
<a href="http://www.applesnail.net/content/anatomy/reproduction.php#male">ovaria</a>, intestines etc.). <br />
After circulating through the tissues and hemocoels of the snail, the blood
is collected in large veins and brought to the posterior kidney. <br />
A portion of the blood that enters the posterior kidney directly flows back
to the heart, while the remaining blood enters the vascular system of the kidneys
(posterior and anterior part).<br />
After passing the anterior kidney, the blood flows through the <a href="http://www.applesnail.net/content/anatomy/foot_mantle.php#mantle_cavity">mantle</a>
vein, from where many small veins bring the blood to the <a href="http://www.applesnail.net/content/anatomy/respiration.php">gills</a>
and the <a href="http://www.applesnail.net/content/anatomy/respiration.php">lung</a>, where O<span class="commentsmall">2</span> uptake
and CO<span class="commentsmall">2</span> is exchange takes place.<br />
The lung-gill vein collects the oxygen rich blood from the lung and the gills
and brings it back to the heart. <br />
<br />
copy right : <a href="http://www.applesnail.net/content/anatomy/circulation.php">http://www.applesnail.net/content/anatomy/circulation.php</a> <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b> </b> </div>
<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span class="comment"> </span><b> </b><br /><span id="goog_1885908499"></span></div>
<br />
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-34295531591847917552012-11-27T02:00:00.001-08:002012-11-27T02:00:20.830-08:00Biogeochemical Cycles <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQCCebZEL7R66qf6ijCt6bQObWV4uJ5RDrhT1-QciUcRDYIBxPEJ5vgBqUnM4u4pAFLPYETMEGsdFsid7yfs3Jzx8NAWF1y5wQLjVtM9l3wFHYLCkJ9HbsAdJRYCX0XfrHkH4y_DnzKYo/s1600/carboncycle_sm.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQCCebZEL7R66qf6ijCt6bQObWV4uJ5RDrhT1-QciUcRDYIBxPEJ5vgBqUnM4u4pAFLPYETMEGsdFsid7yfs3Jzx8NAWF1y5wQLjVtM9l3wFHYLCkJ9HbsAdJRYCX0XfrHkH4y_DnzKYo/s320/carboncycle_sm.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
There are a few types of <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/physical_science/physics/atom_particle/atom.html">atoms</a><a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/physical_science/physics/atom_particle/atom.html"> </a>that can be a part of a<a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/plantae.html"> </a><a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/plantae.html">plant</a><a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/plantae.html"> </a>one day, an <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/animalia.html">animal</a> the next day, and then travel downstream as a part of a<a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Water/river.html"> river’s</a>
water the following day. These atoms can be a part of both living
things like plants and animals, as well as non-living things like water,<a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/overview.html">
</a><a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Atmosphere/overview.html">air</a>, and even <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/geology/rocks_intro.html">rocks</a>.
The same atoms are recycled over and over in different parts of the
Earth. This type of cycle of atoms between living and non-living things
is known as a <em><strong>biogeochemical cycle</strong></em>.<br />
All of the atoms that are building blocks of living things are a
part of biogeochemical cycles. The most common of these are carbon and
nitrogen. <br />
<br />
<ul type="square">
<li><a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Water/co2_cycle.html">The carbon cycle</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/nitrogen_cycle.html">The nitrogen cycle</a></li>
</ul>
Tiny atoms of carbon and nitrogen have no legs to walk, no bicycles,
cars, or airplanes. Yet they can travel around the world as a part of
biogeochemical cycles. So, how do these little things move around the
planet? Here’s an example: An atom of carbon is absorbed from the air
into the <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Water/ocean.html">ocean</a> water where it is used by little floating plankton doing <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/photosynthesis.html">photosynthesis</a>
to get the nutrition they need. There is the possibility that this
little carbon atom becomes part of the plankton’s skeleton, or a part
of the skeleton of the larger animal that eats it, and then part of a <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/geology/sed_intro.html">sedimentary rock</a>
when the living things die and only bones are left behind. Carbon
that is a part of rocks and fossil fuels like oil, coal, and natural
gas may be held away from the rest of the carbon cycle
for a long time. These long-term storage places are called “sinks”.
When fossil fuels are burned, carbon that had been underground is sent
into the air as <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/physical_science/chemistry/carbon_dioxide.html">carbon dioxide</a>, a <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/climate/cli_greengas.html">greenhouse gas</a>.<br />
Recently, people have been causing these biogeochemical cycles to
change (see links below). When we cut down forests, make more
factories, and drive more cars that burn fossil fuels, the way that
carbon and nitrogen move around the Earth changes. These changes add
more greenhouse gases in our atmosphere and this causes more <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/climate/cli_effects.html">global warming</a>.<br />
<br />
copy : <a href="http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/biogeochem.html">http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Life/biogeochem.html</a> <br />
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-58693250165569448442012-11-25T22:59:00.000-08:002012-11-25T22:59:24.830-08:00RIBOSOMES<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2076420558133203637" name="struct"><h2>
STRUCTURE:</h2>
</a>
Ribosomes are tiny particles, about 200 A. It is composed of both
proteins and RNA; in fact it has approximately 37 - 62% RNA, and rest
are made up of proteins.
The RNA present in ribosomes are obviously called ribosomal RNA, and
they are produced in the nucleolus, which is a prominent globular <a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image4.gif" target="_blank">structure</a><a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image4.gif" target="_blank"> </a>in the nucleus. Thus, the proteins are gene products of themselves, and one ribosome is made up of dozens of genes.
The ribosomes fall into two categories: Those that are free to roam in the<a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image2.gif" target="_blank"> cytoplasm</a> , and those that are bound to gigantic, cobwebby organelles made up of membranes, called the <a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image3.gif" target="_blank">endoplasmic reticulum</a>; thus, causing a<a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image5.gif"> rough surface</a><a href="http://./">.</a>
Although, the two kinds of ribosomes play similar roles in translating
mRNA to produce proteins, they are very distinct in where its product
is located. The ribosomes in the cytoplasm allows its protein to roam
about freely, while the bound ribosomes transfer their functional
protein into the endoplasmic reticulum. In addition, ribosomes are also
located within the mitochondria, and the chloroplast, but are only few
in content. <a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image1.gif" target="_blank"> Click Here</a><a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image1.gif" target="_blank"> </a>This spherical particle of 23nm, is composed of two subunits; a <a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image7.gif">large</a><a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image7.gif"> </a>and <a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image8.gif"> small</a><a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image8.gif"> </a>In Eukaryotes, the co-efficient of ribosomes are 80s, of which is
divided into 60s for the large, and 40s for the small subunit. The 60s
contain 28s rRNA, with a small fragment that is attached noncovalently
and can be released upon heating; a 5.8s, and a very small - 120
nucleated of 5sRNA. Whereas, the 40s subunit has only a single 18s rRNA <a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/Ribosome.HTML#3">.</a>
In prokaryotes, however, the large and small subunits are split into
50s and 30s, making a total of 70s respectively. The 50s has two types
of rRNA - <a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/Ribosome.HTML#3"></a><a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image9.gif">a 23s and a 5s </a>. It also has 32 different proteins. On the other hand, the 30s contains a single 16s rRNA plus, 21 different types of proteins <a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/Ribosome.HTML#3">Label</a>.
To help better understand what the s stands for in rRNA, let us use the
prokaryotes as an example. The 50s and 30s refers to the sedimentation
coefficient of the two subunits. This coefficient is a measure of the
speed with which the particles sediment through a solution when spun in
an ultra centrifuge. Thus, the particles with larger coefficient would
centrifuge and settle much faster since it is has more mass than the
particle with the smaller coefficient.
50s + 30s =======> 70s
Note that the two subunits above make up the entire ribosomal molecule
which is 70s. The reason the coefficients do not add up is because they
are not proportional to the particle weight.
During protein synthesis, ribosomes line up along the mRNA and form a
polysome, also called the polyribosome. The mRNA is aligned in the gap
between the 2 ribosomal subunits. It is possible that the nascent
peptide chain grows through a channel or groove in the large ribosomal
subunit. This is predicted to be the case since ribosomes protect a
segment of 30-40 amino acids from degradation. Speaking of amino acids,
up to 30 ribosomes can attach on one strand of mRNA to form amino acid
chains thus leading to protein formation. Ribosomes act as the backbone
for many molecules during translation. It provides room for many
structures to situate itself thus enhancing <a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/image13.gif">protein synthesis.</a> For example, mRNA inserts itself between the two subunits; the
peptidyl transferase complex - the enzyme that allows for the tRNA to
break apart from the amino acid on P-site; this enzyme lays across the
molecule, between the subunits. It contains the P and the A-site for
tRNA binding. Last but not least, the ribosome molecule allows the
growing polypeptide chain, to emerge from the back of the structure,
thus it is situated perpendicular to the mRNA chain.
Ribosomes have a tertiary structure.
Ribosomes make up a large part of cells in many species, which leads to
protein manufacturing. For example, in E.Coli (bacteria), they make up
about 1/4 of the total cell mass. They are intensely basiphilic
(having high affinity for bases).
Due to its complex structures, with many proteins and different kinds
of RNA, researchers have found it very difficult to study the macro
molecular structure of ribosomes, especially for the fact it is quite
impossible to observe its crystal using an x-ray diffraction. Thus,
scientists have been forced to use other means of study to map the
proteins and RNA components in ribosome. Some of these are the
cross-linking, immunoelectron microscopy, and low-angle neutron
scattering methods. The cross-linking shows the protein arrangement and
the types of bonds it forms within itself. The neutron scattering
experiments forms horizontal lines that show the entire structure of
ribosome, with its two subunits, and shows where the proteins are
arranged in the molecule. The empty regions around the proteins is
where the rRNA is located. The immunoelectron microscopy, shows the
proposed location of the 16s rRNA molecule of the small subunit, in
prokaryotes.
<br />
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2076420558133203637" name="funct"><h3>
Function:</h3>
</a>
The ribosomes plays a very important role in protein synthesis, which
is the process by which proteins are made from individual amino acids.
Without the ribosomes the message would not be read, thus proteins could
not be produced. Therefore, ribosomes play a very important role in
role in protein synthesis.
The primary agent in the process of translating the mRNA into a
specific amino acid chain is the ribosome, which consists of two
subunits. These subunits are made up of a third and extremely abundant
type of RNA, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and together contain up to eighty-two
specific proteins assembled in a precise sequence.The ribosomes constituents must be put together in an extremely
precise position and sequence. This assembled ribosome displays a
series of small groves, tunnels, and platforms, where the action of
protein synthesis occurs <a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/Ribosome.HTML#5">.</a>There are the active sites, each dedicated to one of the tasks
required for translation of mRNA into protein. Proteins being
synthesized for export out of the cell, are made by ribosomes attached
to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. In contrast, proteins for use by
the cell are generally made in the cytoplasm by free ribosomes. Several
of these free ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA molecule, giving
rise to the polyribosome or polysome.
Protein synthesis takes place on polyribosomes (or polysomes) where 80S
ribosomes associate with an mRNA coding for a given protein. The
number of ribosomes associated in the polysomal chains depends on the
size of the mRNA. This is also associated with the size of the protein
that is being synthesized. Outside the polyribosome, the ribosomes are
dissociated and form a pool of free subunits. Transfer RNAs are also
bound to the ribosome. There are quite a few factors involved in the
formation of the initiation complex. These include: GTP, methionine
tRNA, an initiation codon in mRNA, 80S ribosomes, and three protein
factors <a href="http://www.cs.stedwards.edu/chem/Chemistry/CHEM43/CHEM43/Ribosomes/Ribosome.HTML#5">.</a>
The process of protein synthesis begins with the capture of the tRNA,
which is carrying an amino acid, by an initiation factor. This binds to
a small ribosomal subunit, which occupies one of the active sites in
the ribosomes, the P (protein) site. This initiation complex recognized
and binds to the 5' end of an mRNA molecule and slides down to the
initiation codon, which is always an AUG sequence of amino acids. The
large subunit of the ribosome now joins the complex. A second tRNA is
now brought into the ribosome by the elongation factor. If the
anticodon of the tRNA pairs with the next codon of the message, the tRNA
occupies the A (acceptor) site on the ribosome. This positions the
second amino acid adjacent to the initiation methionine. Then an
enzyme, peptidyl transferase, which is part of the large ribosomal
subunit mediates the separation of the first amino acid from its tRNA
and the formation of a peptide bond between the initial methionine and
the amino acid is formed. The P site is now occupied by an uncharged
tRNA molecule .
The ribosome will now move down the mRNA by one codon, a process known
as translocation. This movement shifts the growing polypeptide chain to
the P position, and results in an empty A site, where a new charged
tRNA can enter and pair, by forming a hydrogen bond between the codon
and the anticodon. This holds the tRNA into place long enough for an
even more stable binding to occur.
The uncharged tRNA that previously occupied the P site is booted out
of the ribosome and will be recharged and recycled by the cell. The
energy needed for this process is supplied by the hydrolysis of
guanosine triphosphate (GTP). The process then continues along the
length of the mRNA, until the first stop codon is encountered. At that
point the action of a termination factor releases the completed protein
from the last tRNA and the ribosome dissociates into its component
parts.
Another function of the ribosomes occurs in the relation to the neuron
and axons. The cell body of a typical large neuron contains vast
numbers of ribosomes. Although dendrites often contain some ribosomes,
there are no ribosomes in the axon, and its protein must therefore be
provided by the many ribosomes in the cell body.
To see the process of protein synthesis Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-33992772190420408712012-11-25T22:36:00.001-08:002012-11-25T22:36:40.883-08:00What is a mutation ?A mutation is a permanent change
in the DNA sequence of
a gene. Mutations in a gene's DNA sequence
can alter the amino acid sequence of
the protein encoded by the
gene.
How does this happen? Like words in a sentence, the DNA sequence
of each gene determines the amino acid sequence for the protein it
encodes. The DNA sequence is interpreted in groups of three
nucleotide bases,
called codons. Each codon
specifies a single amino acid in a protein.<br />
<h4>
Mutate a sentence!</h4>
We can think about the DNA sequence of
a gene as a sentence made up entirely of three-letter words. In the sequence, each
three-letter word is a codon, specifying a
single amino acid in a protein. Have a look at this sentence:<br />
<h5>
Thesunwashotbuttheoldmandidnotgethishat.</h5>
<br />
If you were to split this sentence into individual three-letter
words, you would probably read it like this:<br />
<h5>
The sun was hot but the old man did not get his hat.</h5>
<br />
This sentence represents a gene. Each letter corresponds to a
nucleotide base, and each word represents a codon.
What if you shifted the three-letter "reading frame?" You would end up with<br />
<h5>
T hes unw ash otb utt heo ldm and idn otg eth ish at.</h5>
<br />
Or<br />
<h5>
Th esu nwa sho tbu tth eol dma ndi dno tge thi sha t.</h5>
<br />
As you can see, only one of these three "reading frames"
translates into an understandable sentence. In the same way, only
one three-letter reading frame within a gene codes for the
correct protein.<br />
Now, going back to the original sentence:<br />
<h5>
Thesunwashotbuttheoldmandidnotgethishat.</h5>
<br />
See how you can mutate the reading frame of this sentence by
inserting or deleting letters within the sentence.<br />
It's easy to make mutations that create "nonsense" sentences. Can
you make mutations that maintain or change the meaning of the
sentence without creating such nonsense?<br />
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-38048237819251262902012-11-25T22:28:00.002-08:002012-11-25T22:28:34.483-08:00RNA STRUCTURE<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3fmfrKUhPFC6aokZCvzI2sBT7ZcAvPBn_ntGhlo65s57DFoRX2UxhHF2Yjgh3J-ceHVFl3vgn13dA9dterJzQBrZp70hyphenhyphenFFAe8CStTMZ6MiAan3tmNTZOYzdvqeR8LhLRE_qxB5GxIJ4/s1600/hairpin.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"></a></div>
<div style="color: maroon;">
<span style="color: black;"><strong>1. Building blocks of RNA </strong></span></div>
<div style="color: maroon;">
<span style="color: black;">The basic components of RNA are the
same than for DNA (<a href="http://www-scf.usc.edu/%7Echem203/resources/DNA/dna_structure.html">see the DNA page</a>) with two major
differences. The pyrimidyne base uracil replace thymine and ribose replace deoxyribose
(see the <a href="http://www-scf.usc.edu/%7Echem203/resources/DNA/ribose.html">sugars</a>, <a href="http://www-scf.usc.edu/%7Echem203/resources/DNA/purines.html">purines</a> and<a href="http://www-scf.usc.edu/%7Echem203/resources/DNA/pyrimidynes.html"> pyrimidines</a> pages). Adenine and Uracil for a base pair formed
by two hydrogen bonds.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSDoDdhUoHgiikkdS0kfUdl2g9P75gCxeF33d9mZoM7O2r8b6THqPOM8uppne89pKBmhWUm4V2RWP-R6MRyD-eqlPaWW5TLvrwNa3IXXwQAe5QD8q2VrPQ1j6vCiSuJYns1yMccNLkdnE/s1600/ribose.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgSDoDdhUoHgiikkdS0kfUdl2g9P75gCxeF33d9mZoM7O2r8b6THqPOM8uppne89pKBmhWUm4V2RWP-R6MRyD-eqlPaWW5TLvrwNa3IXXwQAe5QD8q2VrPQ1j6vCiSuJYns1yMccNLkdnE/s1600/ribose.gif" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjL8dmEgvegbVKwNvge8ddn0515ihSC33WD8AoMNV1zi-2CEQYUPqbD3hs-tVWmGaWy5o3DZ2xDz84Ml3yhszlvaBpM0faKuJcmHr9StWbgFbPdpyZ9f9zPjtiHU6xnoyYXJhI6BfZ0oU4/s1600/uracil.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjL8dmEgvegbVKwNvge8ddn0515ihSC33WD8AoMNV1zi-2CEQYUPqbD3hs-tVWmGaWy5o3DZ2xDz84Ml3yhszlvaBpM0faKuJcmHr9StWbgFbPdpyZ9f9zPjtiHU6xnoyYXJhI6BfZ0oU4/s1600/uracil.jpg" /></a></div>
<br />
<div style="color: maroon;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div style="color: maroon;">
<span style="color: black;"><strong>2. Nucleosides and
nucleotides</strong></span></div>
For RNA, nucleosides are formed similarly to DNA with ribose replacing
deoxyribose Uracil 5' monophosphate is given as an example.<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0vDcJ37im08nrhaLIMGlTa78nNRzi2otcwrUZb8Xg5hNKdGbkmEhfIzWQIhyphenhyphenrMvJcbDeywSSR0rAuX531k61cUn8yqKJs0qw2bxxWZoxI8zN8Ke5Vc96DTcmsxHwo4rZcwUwMCRc4bro/s1600/1-s2.0-S1044030502004105-grs02.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="106" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi0vDcJ37im08nrhaLIMGlTa78nNRzi2otcwrUZb8Xg5hNKdGbkmEhfIzWQIhyphenhyphenrMvJcbDeywSSR0rAuX531k61cUn8yqKJs0qw2bxxWZoxI8zN8Ke5Vc96DTcmsxHwo4rZcwUwMCRc4bro/s320/1-s2.0-S1044030502004105-grs02.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
<br />
RNA also contain "unusual" nucleotides (formed after the RNA synthesis is
complete). These includes: Ribothymidine (T), dihydrouridine (D), pseudouridine (<span style="font-family: Symbol;">Y</span>) and inosine (I).<br />
<br />
<div style="color: maroon;">
<span style="color: black;"><strong>3. RNA Structure.</strong></span> </div>
<div style="color: maroon;">
<br /></div>
<div style="color: maroon;">
For RNA, nucleosides are formed similarly to DNA.<span style="color: black;"> RNA
exist as a single strand. Hairpin is a common secondary/tertiay structure. It requires
complementarity betweem part of the strand. the figure on the left is a schematic
representation of the haipin structure.</span></div>
The chime image below represent yeast
tRNA and has been extracted from the <a href="http://info.bio.cmu.edu/Courses/BiochemMols/tRNA_Tour/tRNAMain.htm">RNA structure
tour</a> pages from Carnegy Mellon University). colors are set from red at the 3' end to
blue at the 5' end.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3fmfrKUhPFC6aokZCvzI2sBT7ZcAvPBn_ntGhlo65s57DFoRX2UxhHF2Yjgh3J-ceHVFl3vgn13dA9dterJzQBrZp70hyphenhyphenFFAe8CStTMZ6MiAan3tmNTZOYzdvqeR8LhLRE_qxB5GxIJ4/s1600/hairpin.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3fmfrKUhPFC6aokZCvzI2sBT7ZcAvPBn_ntGhlo65s57DFoRX2UxhHF2Yjgh3J-ceHVFl3vgn13dA9dterJzQBrZp70hyphenhyphenFFAe8CStTMZ6MiAan3tmNTZOYzdvqeR8LhLRE_qxB5GxIJ4/s1600/hairpin.gif" /></a></div>
Double standed RNA can also exists and is generally similar to A-DNA<br />
<br />
copy right : <a href="http://www-scf.usc.edu/%7Echem203/resources/DNA/rna_structure.html" target="_blank">http://www-scf.usc.edu/~chem203/resources/DNA/rna_structure.html</a> <br />
<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="3"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="#ffffce"></td><td><br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<div style="color: maroon;">
<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-2240254835846146612012-11-21T04:19:00.001-08:002012-11-21T04:19:45.727-08:00<span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-decorations-in-effect: none; -webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; border-collapse: separate; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: auto; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #555555; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; text-align: justify;">The<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><b>hormonal (endocrine) system</b><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>is made up of the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Endocrine_Glands" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Endocrine Glands">endocrine glands</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>that secrete<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Hormones" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Hormones">hormones</a>. Although there are eight major endocrine glands scattered throughout the body, they are still considered to be one system because they have similar functions, similar mechanisms of influence, and many important interrelationships.</span></span><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-decorations-in-effect: none; -webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; border-collapse: separate; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: auto; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #555555; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19px; text-align: justify;"></span></span><br />
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 20px; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline">Description</span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The endocrine glands include the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Pineal_Gland" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Pineal Gland">pineal gland</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Pituitary_Gland" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Pituitary Gland">pituitary gland</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Thyroid_Gland" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Thyroid Gland">thyroid gland</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="new" href="http://www.blogger.com/Parathyroid_Gland?action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Parathyroid Gland (not yet written)">parathyroid gland</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="new" href="http://www.blogger.com/Thymus?action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Thymus (not yet written)">thymus</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Adrenal_Gland" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Adrenal Gland">adrenal gland</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Pancreas" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a>,<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Ovary" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Ovary">ovary</a>, and<a href="http://www.blogger.com/Testis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Testis">testis</a>. Endocrine glands release<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Hormones" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Hormones">hormones</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>into the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Blood" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Blood">blood</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and these molecules travel throughout the body to reach sites where they are active.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.4em;">
Some other organs secrete hormones. For instance, the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Stomach" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Stomach">stomach</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>releases hormones that affect digestion and hunger such as<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Gastrin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Gastrin">gastrin</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="new" href="http://www.blogger.com/Ghrelin?action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;" title="Ghrelin (not yet written)">ghrelin</a>.</div>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2076420558133203637" name="Role_of_the_Hormonal_System_in_the_Body" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;"></a><h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: black; font-size: 20px; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline">Role of the Hormonal System in the Body</span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The endocrine system, along with the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Nervous_System" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Nervous System">nervous system</a>, functions in the regulation of body activities. The nervous system acts through electrical impulses and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>neurotransmitters</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>to cause muscle contraction and glandular secretion. The effect is of short duration, measured in seconds, and localized. The endocrine system acts through chemical messengers called<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>hormones</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>that influence growth, development, and metabolic activities. The action of the endocrine system is measured in minutes, hours, or weeks and is more generalized than the action of the nervous system.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.4em;">
Some of the functions regulated by the endocrine system are growth and development, hunger, mood, metabolism, and reproduction.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; -webkit-text-decorations-in-effect: none; -webkit-text-size-adjust: auto; -webkit-text-stroke-width: 0px; border-collapse: separate; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-align: auto; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #555555; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; line-height: 19px; text-align: justify;"></span></span></div>
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 18px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline">Hormones</span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The secretory products of endocrine glands are called hormones and are secreted directly into the<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Blood" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Blood">blood</a><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>and then carried throughout the body where they influence only those<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://www.blogger.com/Cells" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Cells">cells</a>that have receptor sites for that hormone.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Action hormones</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>are carried by the blood throughout the entire body, yet they affect only certain cells. The specific cells respond to a given hormone because they have receptors for that hormone, which work as a lock and key mechanism. If the hormone (key) fits the receptor (lock), then the hormone will have an effect on the cell. If a hormone and a receptor site do not match, then there is no reaction. All the cells that have receptor sites for a given hormone make up the target tissue for that hormone. In some cases, the target tissue is localized in a single gland or organ. In other cases, the target tissue is diffuse and scattered throughout the body so that many areas are affected. Hormones bring about their characteristic effects on target cells by modifying cellular activity.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Protein hormones</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>react with receptors on the surface of the cell, and the sequence of events that results in hormone action is relatively rapid.<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Steroid hormones</i><span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span>typically react with receptor sites inside a cell. Because this method of action actually involves synthesis of<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Proteins" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Proteins">proteins</a>, it is relatively slow.</div>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2076420558133203637" name="Negative_feedback" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;"></a><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 18px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline">Negative feedback</span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.4em;">
Hormones are very potent substances, which means that very small amounts of a hormone may have profound effects on metabolic processes. Because of their potency, hormone secretion must be regulated within very narrow limits in order to maintain homeostasis in the body.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.4em;">
Many hormones are controlled by some form of a negative feedback mechanism. In this type of system, a gland is sensitive to the concentration of a substance that it regulates. A negative feedback system causes a reversal of increases and decreases in body conditions in order to maintain a state of stability or homeostasis. Some endocrine glands secrete hormones in response to other hormones. The hormones that cause secretion of other hormones are called<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><i>tropic hormones</i>. A hormone from gland A causes gland B to secrete its hormone. A third method of regulating hormone secretion is by direct nervous stimulation. A nerve stimulus causes gland A to secrete its hormone.</div>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=2076420558133203637" name="Non-endocrine_functions" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;"></a><h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; color: black; font-size: 18px; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline">Non-endocrine functions</span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.4em;">
Some glands also have non-endocrine regions that have functions other than hormone secretion. For example, the pancreas has a major exocrine portion that secretes digestive enzymes and an endocrine portion that secretes hormones. The ovaries and testes secrete hormones and also produce the ova and sperm. Some organs, such as the stomach,<a href="http://www.blogger.com/Intestine" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Intestine">intestines</a>, and<span class="Apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/Heart" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #1485ff; text-decoration: none;" title="Heart">heart</a>, produce hormones, but their primary function is not hormone secretion.</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKfSFYBkhESI6M9aGh1r7-5l5R3NjYel88tcASGzb2qEWevQCX7H9w9OHkGj33rlFvG0LINt6IZ3hJaxj1UHwQfFQFRBw6Gp0Ws5d3M2kNHJKalZKs_zTS40Mo1WJN65730PrmnIRuMfM/s1600/Endocrine_system_large.png.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgKfSFYBkhESI6M9aGh1r7-5l5R3NjYel88tcASGzb2qEWevQCX7H9w9OHkGj33rlFvG0LINt6IZ3hJaxj1UHwQfFQFRBw6Gp0Ws5d3M2kNHJKalZKs_zTS40Mo1WJN65730PrmnIRuMfM/s320/Endocrine_system_large.png.jpg" width="198" /></a></div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.4em 0px 0.5em;">
copy by : <a href="http://wiki.medpedia.com/Hormonal_System" target="_blank">http://wiki.medpedia.com/Hormonal_System</a> </div>
<br /><br />
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: separate; color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: small; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: normal; line-height: normal; orphans: 2; text-indent: 0px; text-transform: none; white-space: normal; widows: 2; word-spacing: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: #555555; font-family: Arial; font-size: 14px; line-height: 20px; text-align: justify;"> </span></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-6759589105484137182012-11-17T04:22:00.002-08:002012-11-17T04:22:24.754-08:00GENETIKA<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<iframe allowfullscreen='allowfullscreen' webkitallowfullscreen='webkitallowfullscreen' mozallowfullscreen='mozallowfullscreen' width='320' height='266' src='https://www.blogger.com/video.g?token=AD6v5dwspO_W7zv9Yodue5y8s90x9lj8N-a3Jy5mMxmbLSYPUboEPadQW5M6Nt1yLB7k61HlvajxHqgScho9p1jJAg' class='b-hbp-video b-uploaded' frameborder='0'></iframe></div>
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0L42tcKq2kM" target="_blank">http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0L42tcKq2kM</a> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">GENETIKA
adalah ilmu yang mempelajari sifat-sifat keturunan (hereditas)
serta segala seluk beluknya secara ilmiah. <br />
<br />
Orang yang dianggap sebagai <b>"Bapak Genetika" </b>adalah
<b>JOHAN GREGOR MENDEL.</b><br />
<br />
Orang yang pertama mempelajari sifat-sifat menurun yang diwariskan
dari sel sperma adalah <b>HAECKEL </b>(1868).<br />
<br />
<b>Blendel mempelajari hereditas pada tanaman kacang ercis </b><i><b>(Pisum
sativum) </b></i><b>dengan alasan:<br />
<br />
</b>1. Memiliki pasangan-pasangan sifat yang menyolok.<br />
2. Biasanya melakukan penyerbukan sendiri <i>(Self polination).</i><br />
3. Dapat dengan mudah diadakan penyerbukan silang.<br />
4. Segera menghasilkan keturunan.<br />
<br />
<b>GALUR MURNI </b>adalah vanetas yang terdiri dari genotip yang
homozigot. Simbol "F" (= Filium) menyatakan turunan,
sedang simbol "P" (=Parentum) menyatakan induk.<br />
<br />
<b>HIBRIDA (BASTAR) </b>adalah keturunan dari penyerbukan silang
dengan sifat-sifat beda <tt>——</tt><span style="font-size: xx-small;">></span>
jika satu sifat beda disebut MONOHIBRIDA, jika 2 sifat beda disebut
DIHIBRIDA dst.<br />
<br />
<b>DOMINAN </b>adalah sifat-sifat yang tampak (manifes) pada keturunan.
<b>RESESIF </b>adalah sifat-sifat yang tidak muncul pada keturunan.</span><br />
copy right<a href="http://www.blogger.com/copy%20right%20by%20:%20http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0120%20Bio%203-2a.htm" target="_blank">copy right by : http://free.vlsm.org/v12/sponsor/Sponsor-Pendamping/Praweda/Biologi/0120%20Bio%203-2a.htm</a><br />
<br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-89699995589022290092012-11-12T23:32:00.000-08:002012-11-12T23:32:52.957-08:00DNA...!!!!<span style="background-color: #3d85c6; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"><br /></span>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBq7MDWLmnuCzeO4-5JZ1ebSTmsgQKZ5wQl6VnjV_fzNYYTwnvqsA30dP9wsAyp6kUzHbEJdibinsbhroGiXP7NszAxFYFbZLpml9Ct32Uop6MPE0lZGxypgsW50CgapgFTIQj_L5lNCE/s1600/helix.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBq7MDWLmnuCzeO4-5JZ1ebSTmsgQKZ5wQl6VnjV_fzNYYTwnvqsA30dP9wsAyp6kUzHbEJdibinsbhroGiXP7NszAxFYFbZLpml9Ct32Uop6MPE0lZGxypgsW50CgapgFTIQj_L5lNCE/s320/helix.jpg" width="245" /></a></div>
<span style="background-color: #3d85c6; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"><br /></span>
<span style="background-color: #3d85c6; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;">Asam deoksiribonukleat (DNA) adalah asam nukleat yang mengandung instruksi genetik yang digunakan dalam pengembangan dan fungsi dari semua organisme hidup dikenal dan beberapa virus.</span><br style="background-color: #3d85c6; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: #3d85c6;"></span><a href="" name="more" style="background-color: #3d85c6;"></a><br style="background-color: #3d85c6; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;">Peran utama dari molekul DNA adalah penyimpanan jangka panjang informasi. DNA sering dibandingkan dengan satu set cetak biru atau resep, atau kode, karena berisi instruksi yang dibutuhkan untuk membangun komponen lain dari sel, seperti protein dan molekul RNA. Segmen DNA yang membawa informasi genetik ini disebut gen, tetapi urutan DNA lain yang memiliki tujuan struktural, atau terlibat dalam mengatur penggunaan informasi genetik.</span><br style="background-color: #3d85c6; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: #3d85c6; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"><br /><span style="background-color: white;">Kimia, DNA terdiri dari dua polimer panjang unit sederhana yang disebut nukleotida, dengan tulang punggung yang terbuat dari gula dan gugus fosfat bergabung dengan ikatan ester. Kedua untai berjalan dalam arah yang berlawanan satu sama lain dan karena itu anti-paralel. Terlampir gula masing-masing adalah salah satu dari empat jenis molekul yang disebut basa. Ini adalah urutan dari empat basa sepanjang tulang punggung yang mengkodekan informasi. Informasi ini dibaca dengan menggunakan kode genetik, yang menentukan urutan asam amino dalam protein. Kode ini dibaca oleh menyalin membentang dari DNA menjadi RNA asam nukleat terkait, dalam proses yang disebut transkripsi.</span></span><br style="background-color: #3d85c6; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, FreeSerif, serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: #3d85c6; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 16px; line-height: 18px;"><br /><span style="background-color: white;">Dalam sel, DNA diatur dalam struktur yang panjang yang disebut kromosom. Kromosom ini yang diduplikasi sebelum sel-sel membagi, dalam proses yang disebut replikasi DNA. Organisme eukariotik (hewan, tumbuhan, jamur, dan protista) menyimpan sebagian dari DNA mereka di dalam inti sel dan sebagian DNA mereka dalam organel, seperti mitokondria atau kloroplas. Sebaliknya, prokariota (bakteri dan archaea) menyimpan DNA mereka hanya dalam sitoplasma. Dalam kromosom, kromatin protein seperti histon kompak dan mengatur DNA. Struktur ini kompak memandu interaksi antara DNA dan protein lainnya, membantu mengontrol bagian mana dari DNA ditranskripsi.</span></span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-6919845295990843502012-11-12T23:24:00.000-08:002012-11-12T23:24:44.185-08:00Animal Cell Structure<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDrJmCFGTEJwYZx38ntHjoehH3MUlCFogsboUWeKymwAsYk5dBUcc5O0K-xsUG5jl-B2cUa6lvtL0VTi1bU1o2ECQNls1pzSra370qd3_ios99uQUWZl4Q_leop5Ry0adwhxEg_qg8MzE/s1600/animalcell.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="251" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjDrJmCFGTEJwYZx38ntHjoehH3MUlCFogsboUWeKymwAsYk5dBUcc5O0K-xsUG5jl-B2cUa6lvtL0VTi1bU1o2ECQNls1pzSra370qd3_ios99uQUWZl4Q_leop5Ry0adwhxEg_qg8MzE/s320/animalcell.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="background-color: white; font-size: x-small; font-style: italic;">mage by </span><a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/ref/index.html#graphics" style="background-color: white; font-size: small; font-style: italic;">Chernobyl Frog Dissections</a></div>
<ul style="background-color: white; font-size: small; text-align: -webkit-left;">
<li><br /></li>
<li>The <b>cell membrane</b> is located around the outside of the cell. It is a <b>protein lipid bilayer</b>. The <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/biochem/2.html">hydrophilic</a> heads of the <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/biochem/5.html">lipids</a> point outwards while the<a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/biochem/2.html">hydrophobic</a> tails occupy the space between the two lipid layers. Several types of <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/biochem/6.html">proteins</a> are imbedded in the membrane: channel, transport, recognition, receptor, and electron transfer. <b>Channel proteins</b> provide passageways through the membrane for small substances to diffuse through. <b>Transport proteins</b> are involved in the <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/cells/5.html">active transport</a> of substances across the membrane. <b>Recognition proteins</b> recognize other cells. <b>Receptor proteins</b> are receptor sites for hormones and other chemicals. <b>Electron transfer proteins</b> are involved in the transfer of electrons in processes like <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/photo/3.html">photosynthesis</a> and <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/respiration/5.html">cellular respiration</a>. Because the proteins constantly shift throughout the cell membrane, it is referred to as a <b>fluid mosaic model</b>. The functions of the cell membrane include: holding cellular material, regulating the movement of materials across the membrane, providing a surface for many chemical reactions, and identifying the cell to the body's <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/systems/10.html">immune system</a>.<br /></li>
<li><b>Cell junctions</b> connect one cell to another. <b>Gap junctions</b> are found in animals and are very, very small channels that allow various <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/biochem/1.html">ions</a> and other small substances to pass from one cell to another. <b>Tight junctions</b> are seals around cells to prevent leakage. They are important for containing liquids like stomach acids. <b>Desmosomes</b> are spot welds that hold cells together.<br /></li>
<li>The <b>nucleus</b> controls the cell's activities and contains all the genetic material (46 <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/division/1.html">chromosomes</a> in humans).<br /></li>
<li>The <b>nucleolus</b> is involved in the synthesis of <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/genetics/3.html">ribosomal RNA</a>. It is a dark body inside the nucleus.<br /></li>
<li>The <b>nuclear membrane</b> keeps <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/genetics/2.html">DNA</a> inside the nucleus but allows <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/genetics/3.html">mRNA</a>and proteins through. It is a double membrane with large pores.<br /></li>
<li><b>Ribosomes</b> assemble proteins from RNA codes. They are found free-floating in the <b>cytoplasm</b> throughout the cell or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.<br /></li>
<li>The <b>smooth endoplasmic reticulum</b> is a series of long canals running throughout the cell. It detoxifies the cell and converts foodstuffs.<br /></li>
<li>The <b>rough endoplasmic reticulum</b> is a series of long canals running throughout the cell with ribosomes attached. It transports proteins to the golgi bodies for packaging.<br /></li>
<li><b>Golgi bodies</b> (also apparatus or complex) store and package cellular secretions for export out of the cell (usually through the use of vacuoles). Salivary, oil, and digestive glands have very active golgi bodies.<br /></li>
<li><b>Lysosomes</b> digest and remove worn out cell organelles. In essence, they are vacuoles filled with digestive <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/biochem/7.html">enzymes</a>.<br /></li>
<li><b>Mitochondria</b> produce most of the cell's energy. They are composed of two membranes (an outer and a folded inner membrane) and are common in muscle cells.<br /></li>
<li><b>Centrioles</b> anchor <b>spindle fibers</b> during <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/division/3.html">cell division</a>. They are composed of <b>microtubules</b> and are only found in animal cells.<br /></li>
<li>The cell's <b>cytoskeleton</b> provides the cell with shape and support. It is involved in cell movement (cytoplasmic streaming, muscle contraction, ameboid movement, and cell division). The cytoskeleton is composed of<b>actin filaments</b>, <b>intermediate filaments</b>, and microtubules.<br /></li>
<li><b>Vacuoles</b> are "bubbles" of material in the cell. Usually vacuoles hold water. They can, however, hold solutions and solid material as well.<br /></li>
<li>Some cells have <b>microvilli</b> to aid in movement or absorption.</li>
</ul>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-left;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;">copy by: <a href="http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/cells/2.html" target="_blank">http://library.thinkquest.org/28751/review/cells/2.html</a></span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-77161848066157385222012-11-12T23:11:00.000-08:002012-11-12T23:11:37.164-08:00Plant<span style="background-color: white;">A plant has two </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossO.html#organ systems" style="background-color: white;"><span>organ systems</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">: 1) the </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossS.html#shoot" style="background-color: white;"><span>shoot</span></a><span style="background-color: white;"> system, and 2) the </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossR.html#shoot" style="background-color: white;"><span>root</span></a><span style="background-color: white;"> system. The shoot system is above ground and includes the organs such as leaves, buds, stems, flowers (if the plant has any), and fruits (if the plant has any). The root system includes those parts of the plant below ground, such as the roots, </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossT.html#rhizome" style="background-color: white;"><span>tubers</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, and </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossR.html#rhizome" style="background-color: white;"><span>rhizomes</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJq1iDKwWc9Ml1Os3lMa23MdkDjsNK8POJkpLV519DMv4IxQNJIygP23F7hlkxozSDCcmWAQQJkiDuMfmEVLmdOES_FnXOzNUw2tjC8dvKUCJrLUYJTq-0xlWmZDlOTIaruqN6YPA7dq4/s1600/plant.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJq1iDKwWc9Ml1Os3lMa23MdkDjsNK8POJkpLV519DMv4IxQNJIygP23F7hlkxozSDCcmWAQQJkiDuMfmEVLmdOES_FnXOzNUw2tjC8dvKUCJrLUYJTq-0xlWmZDlOTIaruqN6YPA7dq4/s320/plant.gif" width="198" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpueeb9ASEF87X3PbDp14-0SLXElrbUJX_i9FrAi0ItWet63Gm4Pbqm2i6E-YPxJoTfVVAq4RUETASeA4sNX8QP7-XUJ5v92H8WqCDLlGYqpfksvX5VwyWWee1-SrDmMmbRcVxHQkLY2k/s1600/bean_whole_morphology.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgpueeb9ASEF87X3PbDp14-0SLXElrbUJX_i9FrAi0ItWet63Gm4Pbqm2i6E-YPxJoTfVVAq4RUETASeA4sNX8QP7-XUJ5v92H8WqCDLlGYqpfksvX5VwyWWee1-SrDmMmbRcVxHQkLY2k/s1600/bean_whole_morphology.gif" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<a href="http://www.whfreeman.com/" target="_blank">www.whfreeman.com</a></div>
<span style="background-color: white;">Plant cells are formed at meristems, and then develop into cell types which are grouped into </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossT.html#tissues" style="background-color: white;"><span>tissues</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">. Plants have only three tissue types: 1) </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossD.html#dermal system" style="background-color: white;"><span>Dermal</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">; 2) </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossG.html#ground system" style="background-color: white;"><span>Ground</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">; and 3) </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossV.html#vascular system" style="background-color: white;"><span>Vascular</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">. Dermal tissue covers the outer surface of </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossH.html#herbaceous" style="background-color: white;"><span>herbaceous</span></a><span style="background-color: white;"> plants. Dermal tissue is composed of epidermal cells, closely packed cells that secrete a waxy cuticle that aids in the prevention of water loss. The ground tissue comprises the bulk of the primary plant body. Parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells are common in the ground tissue. Vascular tissue transports food, water, hormones and minerals within the plant. Vascular tissue includes xylem, phloem, parenchyma, and cambium cells.</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5kiAo3IPakX011Ww31QjrKvtds7fy9S9ZU5vEOsz-T5GOcaM9mRaf-0YbGIQCc6Zb1DdOinJ-8pqTvEkHqfcMC_mwmKMbIetG2HOD0Ac2CASoSwP-6FENlMfDf5vwO7JJCFrN9U1jPqQ/s1600/lsroot.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="207" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5kiAo3IPakX011Ww31QjrKvtds7fy9S9ZU5vEOsz-T5GOcaM9mRaf-0YbGIQCc6Zb1DdOinJ-8pqTvEkHqfcMC_mwmKMbIetG2HOD0Ac2CASoSwP-6FENlMfDf5vwO7JJCFrN9U1jPqQ/s320/lsroot.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_CPvYozToC35DXYff3jVG8z8qbbPSqV1hrU8tK5P-5smkmFRG3mURHJq5LuL70O-SP2ckpU80BsrwFmZhGeLH1Yh-ZxIyD0EAbPxJ6izru56crBrqaZaGSR4xZKC09rMDJ9PiMH0bIKY/s1600/rootts.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_CPvYozToC35DXYff3jVG8z8qbbPSqV1hrU8tK5P-5smkmFRG3mURHJq5LuL70O-SP2ckpU80BsrwFmZhGeLH1Yh-ZxIyD0EAbPxJ6izru56crBrqaZaGSR4xZKC09rMDJ9PiMH0bIKY/s320/rootts.gif" width="259" /></a></div>
<span style="background-color: white;">Plant cell types rise by </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossM.html#mitosis" style="background-color: white;"><span>mitosis</span></a><span style="background-color: white;"> from a </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossM.html#meristematic tissue" style="background-color: white;"><span>meristem</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">. A meristem may be defined as a region of localized mitosis. Meristems may be at the tip of the shoot or root (a type known as the</span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossA.html#apical meristem" style="background-color: white;"><span>apical meristem</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">) or lateral, occurring in cylinders extending nearly the length of the plant. A cambium is a lateral meristem that produces (usually) </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossS.html#secondary growth" style="background-color: white;"><span>secondary growth</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">. Secondary growth produces both wood and cork (although from separate </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossS.html#secondary (lateral) meristems" style="background-color: white;"><span>secondary meristems</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">).</span><br />
<br />
<h3 style="background-color: white;">
<span>Parenchyma</span></h3>
<div style="background-color: white;">
<span>A generalized plant cell type, </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossPQ.html#parenchyma"><span>parenchyma</span></a><span> cells are alive at maturity. They function in storage, </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossPQ.html#photosynthesis"><span>photosynthesis</span></a><span>, and as the bulk of ground and vascular tissues. </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossPQ.html#palisade"><span>Palisade parenchyma</span></a><span> cells are elogated cells located in many leaves just below the epidermal tissue. </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossS.html#spongy mesophyll"><span>Spongy mesophyll</span></a><span> cells occur below the one or two layers of palisade cells. Ray parenchyma cells occur in wood rays, the structures that transport materials laterally within a woody stem. Parenchyma cells also occur within the xylem and phloem of </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossV.html#vascular bundle"><span>vascular bundles</span></a><span>. The largest parenchyma cells occur in the</span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossPQ.html#pith"><span> pith</span></a><span> region, often, as in corn (<i>Zea </i>) stems, being larger than the vascular bundles. In many prepared slides they stain green.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuQHbKQqXumSSsGtR4qFely84QcIl4_QX5NSE390yC20nv3SP_C7AxqIYeiv1YJCAx3ihiuJpPAKqoJAKKo6AUH8PVe4w-i1v2DmcMsLDpBq0XpACP4zF3Fp1hlSOD4yYzPEcbcA39550/s1600/leafstru.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="223" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuQHbKQqXumSSsGtR4qFely84QcIl4_QX5NSE390yC20nv3SP_C7AxqIYeiv1YJCAx3ihiuJpPAKqoJAKKo6AUH8PVe4w-i1v2DmcMsLDpBq0XpACP4zF3Fp1hlSOD4yYzPEcbcA39550/s320/leafstru.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCRYBAWDJnWxSF7sN5Xl32yYMxK1gAL3sbWLAh2N0Blsxtv1Py13_k6JK7tU_WxmgdC71xqpDfjWpHYR0zxTtoKzHme9knnxiR_bukpNtpGg3knbxwOGRInNMkJFMmkTCi4UWWoZ8aNZY/s1600/Syringia_closeup.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="139" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCRYBAWDJnWxSF7sN5Xl32yYMxK1gAL3sbWLAh2N0Blsxtv1Py13_k6JK7tU_WxmgdC71xqpDfjWpHYR0zxTtoKzHme9knnxiR_bukpNtpGg3knbxwOGRInNMkJFMmkTCi4UWWoZ8aNZY/s320/Syringia_closeup.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjD3paF2ds42tlbfxvkhhak8YSXKsymm6xvhrb14OwMu7DXXKjEEz5AoFV9FFLoef2ngkSBZZHEeP3qsd_7ts5BhEoQC8OKQO0L32xnZARgXiHV4hOa9yY-IBBlfFpbCyQpWgbYHxBZ4o0/s1600/11419a.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="252" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjD3paF2ds42tlbfxvkhhak8YSXKsymm6xvhrb14OwMu7DXXKjEEz5AoFV9FFLoef2ngkSBZZHEeP3qsd_7ts5BhEoQC8OKQO0L32xnZARgXiHV4hOa9yY-IBBlfFpbCyQpWgbYHxBZ4o0/s320/11419a.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="background-color: white;">
<span>Note the large </span><span style="color: #009900;">nucleus</span><span> and </span><span style="color: #000099;">nucleolus</span><span> in the center of the cell, </span><span style="color: #cc0000;">mitochondria</span><span> and </span><span style="color: #ffcc00;">plastids</span><span> in the cytoplasm.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white;">
<span><a href="http://www.denniskunkel.com/" target="_blank">www.DennisKunkel.com</a></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="background-color: white;">
</div>
<h3>
<span>Collenchyma</span></h3>
<a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossC.html#collenchyma"><span>Collenchyma</span></a><span> cells support the plant. These cells are charcterized by thickenings of the wall, the are alive at maturity. They tend to occur as part of vascular bundles or on the corners of angular stems. In many prepared slides they stain red.</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBQmoOhikbaqnYaETvQ8j2fsIhA0qv2saikZyU5osARb4n8IfD6MXjeezxmsoEE0qZRftMOgel94KyYuDHV6n3MJcnljZ_7veO_m6GcZTQOU12IhaUJZ2nH021bTb9Qrs5aeFjdpya2tk/s1600/collenchyma.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="108" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBQmoOhikbaqnYaETvQ8j2fsIhA0qv2saikZyU5osARb4n8IfD6MXjeezxmsoEE0qZRftMOgel94KyYuDHV6n3MJcnljZ_7veO_m6GcZTQOU12IhaUJZ2nH021bTb9Qrs5aeFjdpya2tk/s320/collenchyma.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
<span><br /></span>
<center>
<span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></center>
<h3>
<span><a href="" name="Sclerenchyma"></a>Sclerenchyma</span><span> </span></h3>
<a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossS.html#sclerenchyma"><span>Sclerenchyma</span></a><span> cells support the plant. They often occur as bundle cap fibers. Sclerenchyma cells are characterized by thickenings in their secondary walls. They are dead at maturity. They, like collenchyma, stain red in many commonly used prepared slides.</span><br />
<span>A common type of schlerenchyma cell is the fiber.</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglKkVMfRrABWyfBpbiq7DfkG0FRiMl0xP50qJE1dbi6orv-RAdrbCVoorQu9p8ynVYKA5GdMipCuyuyfOaSvHHQlJzwjnsy0vZ70RoKL31H2qovG52GrbGmvmJgXP5LFlUSS9MGREncUw/s1600/SclereidfibersXS.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglKkVMfRrABWyfBpbiq7DfkG0FRiMl0xP50qJE1dbi6orv-RAdrbCVoorQu9p8ynVYKA5GdMipCuyuyfOaSvHHQlJzwjnsy0vZ70RoKL31H2qovG52GrbGmvmJgXP5LFlUSS9MGREncUw/s1600/SclereidfibersXS.gif" /></a></div>
<span><br /></span>
<h3>
<span><a href="" name="Xylem"></a>Xylem</span></h3>
<a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossWXYZ.html#xylem"><span>Xylem</span></a><span> is a term applied to woody (</span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossL.html#lignin"><span>lignin</span></a><span>-impregnated) walls of certain cells of plants. Xylem cells tend to conduct water and minerals from roots to leaves. While parenchyma cells do occur within what is commonly termed the "xylem" the more identifiable cells, </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossT.html#tracheids"><span>tracheids</span></a><span> and </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossV.html#vessel elements"><span>vessel elements</span></a><span>, tend to stain red with Safranin-O. Tracheids are the more primitive of the two cell types, occurring in the earliest vascular plants. Tracheids are long and tapered, with angled end-plates that connect cell to cell. Vessel elements are shorter, much wider, and lack end plates. They occur only in </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossA.html#angiosperms"><span>angiosperms</span></a><span>, the most recently evolved large group of plants.</span><br />
<span><br /></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnq6m4x8ONZGySL8gS11_EgU_afQqTmT7oxWPX0e5pt1EAinnmWg3cERX9s9ML5IzpECcozcJVM8w2H1FGuCSjGVh214PYjWOsHkvld4c5zWRy8VU4aUs7rT4U3WnOYolZbz-vcXQuKRM/s1600/Vascular_bundle_labeled.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhnq6m4x8ONZGySL8gS11_EgU_afQqTmT7oxWPX0e5pt1EAinnmWg3cERX9s9ML5IzpECcozcJVM8w2H1FGuCSjGVh214PYjWOsHkvld4c5zWRy8VU4aUs7rT4U3WnOYolZbz-vcXQuKRM/s1600/Vascular_bundle_labeled.gif" /></a></div>
<div style="background-color: white;">
<span style="font-size: medium;">Tracheids, longer, and narrower than most vessels, appear first in the fossil record. Vessels occur later. Tracheids have obliquely-angled endwalls cut across by bars. The evolutionary trend in vessels is for shorter cells, with no bars on the endwalls.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white;">
</div>
<a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossPQ.html#phloem"><span>Phloem</span></a><span> cells conduct food from leaves to rest of the plant. They are alive at maturity and tend to stain green (with the stain fast green). Phloem cells are usually located outside the xylem. The two most common cells in the phloem are the </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossC.html#companion cells"><span>companion cells</span></a><span> and </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossS.html#sieve cells"><span>sieve cells</span></a><span>. Companion cells retain their nucleus and control the adjacent sieve cells. Dissolved food, as sucrose, flows through the sieve cells.</span><br />
<div>
<span><br /></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXa3zVLDci6FT2HMKlLuCtcbuI29TuyfuUKlTpjXW96Puc7Xjyek-NRxLSTOQcHHEI9rlqqvjRrnAjepOHj4VpOuGj7nckfOMdhmsmrfNM3ki02uLfDpAKMBOhmoYjppDw2FMbWaV1DxU/s1600/SievePlate.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXa3zVLDci6FT2HMKlLuCtcbuI29TuyfuUKlTpjXW96Puc7Xjyek-NRxLSTOQcHHEI9rlqqvjRrnAjepOHj4VpOuGj7nckfOMdhmsmrfNM3ki02uLfDpAKMBOhmoYjppDw2FMbWaV1DxU/s1600/SievePlate.gif" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikYO4G_gVJNjMaKF7uO22RvPtQBje3ZS3O0tcTJIE289-y1Q02IHs6hjipGKuwvHiTW5r7rBHVVp3ADwo6fFr1kdctjQ8GxvkH0SqGw77PR-Y6AmqKYRIiiC1TWr5iB_rN0qrgrAXZoew/s1600/SieveplateLS.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikYO4G_gVJNjMaKF7uO22RvPtQBje3ZS3O0tcTJIE289-y1Q02IHs6hjipGKuwvHiTW5r7rBHVVp3ADwo6fFr1kdctjQ8GxvkH0SqGw77PR-Y6AmqKYRIiiC1TWr5iB_rN0qrgrAXZoew/s1600/SieveplateLS.gif" /></a></div>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEigaAUb5Kmk1gd8fV9h-w9WBw_TypbkukpIXTvVQzBxTU4KC-x3twwUG2qM88XD91yL0nnXccueR34fSYtD64ghPmk6cnQvJuYyt25dvCtdpadTYUuVd5t1XrA2bqcbO0zpxHUNPWu6KiM/s1600/stomates.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="185" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEigaAUb5Kmk1gd8fV9h-w9WBw_TypbkukpIXTvVQzBxTU4KC-x3twwUG2qM88XD91yL0nnXccueR34fSYtD64ghPmk6cnQvJuYyt25dvCtdpadTYUuVd5t1XrA2bqcbO0zpxHUNPWu6KiM/s320/stomates.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<a href="gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Cells_and_Tissues/Cucurbita_Stem/Cross_Section/Phloem/Sieve-plate" target="_blank">gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Cells_and_Tissues/Cucurbita_Stem/Cross_Section/Phloem/Sieve-plate</a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
</div>
<h4 style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span>Epidermis</span></h4>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span>The </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossE.html#epidermis"><span>epidermal tissue</span></a><span> functions in prevention of water loss and acts as a barrier to fungi and other invaders. Thus, epidermal cells are closely packed, with little intercellular space. To further cut down on water loss, many plants have a waxy </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossC.html#cuticle"><span>cuticle</span></a><span> layer deposited on top of the epidermal cells.</span></div>
<h4 style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span>Guard Cells</span></h4>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span>To facilitate gas exchange between the inner parts of leaves, stems, and fruits, plants have a series of openings known as </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossS.html#stomata"><span>stomata</span></a><span> (singular stoma). Obviously these openings would allow gas exchange, but at a cost of water loss. </span><a href="http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookglossG.html#guard cells"><span>Guard cells</span></a><span> are bean-shaped cells covering the stomata opening. They regulate exchange of water vapor, oxygen and carbon dioxide through the stoma.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYvIeve8XZCYqE6b9atBhTqiWABLL0rpzJO6lTk9mXfArT86QtgmGCOLbqce7RmvPUJn8gPYHPmtEBsIm-beR6JDWCAez1tF-EGwi5mWRSRDqbCpSVaNtGgmQSrrgh68TJjvFSKER-T7k/s1600/92462b.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="254" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYvIeve8XZCYqE6b9atBhTqiWABLL0rpzJO6lTk9mXfArT86QtgmGCOLbqce7RmvPUJn8gPYHPmtEBsIm-beR6JDWCAez1tF-EGwi5mWRSRDqbCpSVaNtGgmQSrrgh68TJjvFSKER-T7k/s320/92462b.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Leaf/Corn_epidermal_peel" target="_blank">gopher://wiscinfo.wisc.edu:2070/I9/.image/.bot/.130/Leaf/Corn_epidermal_peel</a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span><br /></span></div>
<br />
<div>
<span><br /></span></div>
<br />
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-88801637110261723282012-11-12T22:52:00.000-08:002012-11-12T22:52:00.801-08:00ecology<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBcs8KKtpbelucA-wL7HTIX9v3w2ljl6LHuNr2zTjjc6-ccDpwxGSuk6JEB34ees_2c_-ONpm84TkqyyEF2IPb0swC6-HtDcjE8t550RseHh5Rj4YT6d9E_4FL9GaZA-IJRYlLZ3N6WXA/s1600/banner_ecology.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="146" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBcs8KKtpbelucA-wL7HTIX9v3w2ljl6LHuNr2zTjjc6-ccDpwxGSuk6JEB34ees_2c_-ONpm84TkqyyEF2IPb0swC6-HtDcjE8t550RseHh5Rj4YT6d9E_4FL9GaZA-IJRYlLZ3N6WXA/s320/banner_ecology.gif" width="320" /></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt;">
<b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"><a href="http://www.google.co.id/imgres?um=1&hl=en&sa=N&biw=1360&bih=679&tbm=isch&tbnid=GzEuYMtkWrelgM:&imgrefurl=http://science.pppst.com/ecology.html&docid=mmKZraNp2C15iM&imgurl=http://science.pppst.com/banner_ecology.gif" target="_blank">http://www.google.co.id/imgres?um=1&hl=en&sa=N&biw=1360&bih=679&tbm=isch&tbnid=GzEuYMtkWrelgM:&imgrefurl=http://science.pppst.com/ecology.html&docid=mmKZraNp2C15iM&imgurl=http://science.pppst.com/banner_ecology.gif</a></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt;">
<b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;">Ecology</span></b><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;">(from</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Greek</span></a>:</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EL" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;">ο</span><span lang="EL" style="font-family: Tahoma, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;">ἶ</span><span lang="EL" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;">κος</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;">, "house"; -λογία, "study
of"<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cnote_A"><span style="text-decoration: none;">[A]</span></a></sup>) is the</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science" title="Science"><span style="text-decoration: none;">scientific</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;">study of the relationships
that living</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism" title="Organism"><span style="text-decoration: none;">organisms</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;">have with each other and
with their</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment"><span style="text-decoration: none;">natural environment</span></a>.
Topics of interest to ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount
(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass"><span style="text-decoration: none;">biomass</span></a>), number, and changing states of organisms within and
among</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystems" title="Ecosystems"><span style="text-decoration: none;">ecosystems</span></a>. Ecosystems are composed of dynamically interacting
parts including</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisms" title="Organisms"><span style="text-decoration: none;">organisms</span></a>, the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)"><span style="text-decoration: none;">communities</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;">they make up, and the
non-living components of their environment. Ecosystem processes, such as</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production"><span style="text-decoration: none;">primary production</span></a>,</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedogenesis" title="Pedogenesis"><span style="text-decoration: none;">pedogenesis</span></a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrient_cycling" title="Nutrient cycling"><span style="text-decoration: none;">nutrient cycling</span></a>, and various</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction"><span style="text-decoration: none;">niche construction</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;">activities, regulate the
flux of energy and matter through an environment. These processes are sustained
by the</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity"><span style="text-decoration: none;">biodiversity</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt;">within them. Biodiversity
refers to the varieties of species in ecosystems, the genetic variations they
contain, and the processes that are functionally enriched by the diversity of
ecological interactions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;">Ecology is an</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interdisciplinary" title="Interdisciplinary"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">interdisciplinary</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;">field that includes</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">biology</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;">and</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Earth science</span></a>. The word
"ecology" ("Ökologie") was coined in 1866 by the German
scientist</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Ernst Haeckel</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;">(1834–1919). Ancient Greek philosophers such as</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Hippocrates</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;">and</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Aristotle</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;">laid the foundations of
ecology in their studies on</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">natural history</span></a>. Modern ecology
transformed into a more rigorous</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_sciences" title="Natural sciences"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">science</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;">in the late 19th century.</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">Evolutionary</span></a></span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;">concepts on adaptation and
natural selection became cornerstones of modern</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">ecological theory</span></a>.
Ecology is not synonymous with environment,</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">environmentalism</span></a>, natural history, or</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">environmental
science</span></a>. It is closely related to evolutionary biology,</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">genetics</span></a>, and</span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology"><span style="line-height: 115%; text-decoration: none;">ethology</span></a>. An understanding of how
biodiversity affects ecological function is an important focus area in
ecological studies.</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFcP778N0OAFbKyeHH-XQ-_20vIz9Gg0mNiN0Ax1SGRhXsYEMboHFJM3bbKxs67Z2fG0RvxRVj0hnRGuYlyFp0636ResI0xcn5bN3-4fy0t357PBxx8m4EoGOnZLYDWc8CE2mDpMcloHE/s1600/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiFcP778N0OAFbKyeHH-XQ-_20vIz9Gg0mNiN0Ax1SGRhXsYEMboHFJM3bbKxs67Z2fG0RvxRVj0hnRGuYlyFp0636ResI0xcn5bN3-4fy0t357PBxx8m4EoGOnZLYDWc8CE2mDpMcloHE/s1600/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 0.05in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: left;">
<span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Early
beginnings</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Ecology has a complex origin, due
in large part to its interdisciplinary nature.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Ancient Greek philosophers such as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Hippocrates</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Aristotle</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>were
among the first to record observations on natural history. However, they viewed
life in terms of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism"><span style="color: #0645ad;">essentialism</span></a>, where species were
conceptualized as static unchanging things while varieties were seen as
aberrations of an<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism"><span style="color: #0645ad;">idealized type</span></a>. This contrasts against the
modern understanding of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology"><span style="color: #0645ad;">ecological theory</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>where varieties are viewed as the real
phenomena of interest and having a role in the origins of adaptations by means
of<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection"><span style="color: #0645ad;">natural selection</span></a>.
Early conceptions of ecology, such as a balance and regulation in nature can be
traced to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Herodotus</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(died<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>c</i>. 425 BC), who described one
of the earliest accounts of<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">mutualism</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in his observation of "natural
dentistry". Basking<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nile_crocodile" title="Nile crocodile"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Nile crocodiles</span></a>, he noted, would open their
mouths to give<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandpiper" title="Sandpiper"><span style="color: #0645ad;">sandpipers</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>safe
access to pluck<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leech" title="Leech"><span style="color: #0645ad;">leeches</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>out, giving nutrition to the sandpiper
and oral hygiene for the crocodile.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Aristotle
was an early influence on the philosophical development of ecology. He and his
student<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Theophrastus</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>made
extensive observations on plant and animal migrations, biogeography,
physiology, and on their behaviour, giving an early analogue to the modern
concept of an ecological niche. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Ecological concepts such as food
chains, population regulation, and productivity were first developed in the
1700s, through the published works of microscopist<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antoni van Leeuwenhoek"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1632–1723)
and botanist<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bradley_(botanist)" title="Richard Bradley (botanist)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Richard Bradley</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1688?–1732).Biogeographer<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humbolt" title="Alexander von Humbolt"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Alexander von Humbolt</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1769–1859) was an early pioneer in
ecological thinking and was among the first to recognize ecological gradients,
where species are replaced or altered in form along<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_gradient" title="Environmental gradient"><span style="color: #0645ad;">environmental
gradients</span></a>, such as a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">cline</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>forming
along a rise in elevation. Humbolt drew inspiration from<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Isaac Newton</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>as
he developed a form of "terrestrial physics." In Newtonian fashion,
he brought a scientific exactitude for measurement into natural history and
even alluded to concepts that are the foundation of a modern ecological law on
species-to-area relationships. Natural historians, such as Humbolt,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton"><span style="color: #0645ad;">James Hutton</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(among others) laid the foundations of
the modern ecological sciences. The term "ecology" (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language" title="German language"><span style="color: #0645ad;">German</span></a>:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><i><span lang="DE" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Oekologie</span></i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">) is of a more recent origin and
was first coined by the German biologist<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ernst Haeckel</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in his book<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Generelle Morphologie der
Organismen</i><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1866). Haeckel
was a zoologist, artist, writer, and later in life a professor of comparative
anatomy. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: #f9f9f9; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 18pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: left;">
</div>
<h3 style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .05in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Since
1900</span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Modern ecology is a young science
that first attracted substantial scientific attention toward the end of the
19th century (around the same time that evolutionary studies were gaining
scientific interest). In the early 20th century, ecology transitioned from a
more<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics"><span style="color: #0645ad;">descriptive form</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history"><span style="color: #0645ad;">natural history</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>to a more<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method"><span style="color: #0645ad;">analytical form</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>scientific
natural history</i>.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederic_Clements" title="Frederic Clements"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Frederic Clements</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>published the first American ecology
book in 1905, presenting the idea of plant communities as a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superorganism" title="Superorganism"><span style="color: #0645ad;">superorganism</span></a>. This publication launched a
debate between ecological holism and individualism that lasted until the 1970s.
Clements' superorganism concept proposed that ecosystems progress through
regular and determined stages of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seral_development" title="Seral development"><span style="color: #0645ad;">seral development</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>that are analogous to the
developmental stages of an organism. The Clementsian paradigm was challenged by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Gleason" title="Henry Gleason"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Henry Gleason</span></a>, who stated that ecological
communities develop from the unique and coincidental association of individual
organisms. This perceptual shift placed the focus back onto the life histories
of individual organisms and how this relates to the development of community
associations. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The Clementsian superorganism
theory was an overextended application of an<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism"><span style="color: #0645ad;">idealistic form</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of holism. The term "holism"
was coined in 1926 by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Christian_Smuts" title="Jan Christian Smuts"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Jan Christian Smuts</span></a>,
a South African general and polarizing historical figure who was inspired by
Clements' superorganism concept. Around the same time,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sutherland_Elton" title="Charles Sutherland Elton"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Charles Elton</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>pioneered the concept of food chains
in his classical book<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><i>Animal
Ecology</i>.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Eltondefined
ecological relations using concepts of food chains, food cycles, and food size,
and described numerical relations among different functional groups and their
relative abundance. Elton's 'food cycle' was replaced by 'food web' in a
subsequent ecological text<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_J._Lotka" title="Alfred J. Lotka"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Alfred J. Lotka</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>brought in many theoretical concepts
applying thermodynamic principles to ecology. In 1942,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Lindeman" title="Raymond Lindeman"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Raymond Lindeman</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>wrote a landmark paper on the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophic_dynamics#Trophic_dynamics" title="Trophic dynamics"><span style="color: #0645ad;">trophic dynamics</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>of ecology, which was published
posthumously after initially being rejected for its theoretical emphasis.
Trophic dynamics became the foundation for much of the work to follow on energy
and material flow through ecosystems.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_E._MacArthur" title="Robert E. MacArthur"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Robert E. MacArthur</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>advanced mathematical theory,
predictions and tests in ecology in the 1950s, which inspired a resurgent
school of theoretical mathematical ecologists.<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-McIntosh85-10"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[10]</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Cook77-32"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[32]</span></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology#cite_note-Odum68-33"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[33]</span></a></sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Ecology
also has developed through contributions from other nations, including Russia's<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_Vernadsky" title="Vladimir Vernadsky"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Vladimir Vernadsky</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and his founding of the biosphere
concept in the 1920sand Japan's<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinji_Imanishi" title="Kinji Imanishi"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Kinji Imanishi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and his concepts of harmony in nature
and habitat segregation in the 1950s. The scientific recognition of contributions
to ecology from non-English-speaking cultures is hampered by language and
translation barriers.</span></div>
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Ecology surged in popular and
scientific interest during the 1960–1970s</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_movement" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;" title="Environmental movement"><span style="color: #0645ad;">environmental
movement</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">. There are strong historical and scientific ties between
ecology, environmental management, and protection. The historic emphasis and
poetic naturalist writings for protection was on wild places, from notable
ecologists in the history of</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_biology" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;" title="Conservation biology"><span style="color: #0645ad;">conservation biology</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">,
such as</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aldo_Leopold" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;" title="Aldo Leopold"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Aldo Leopold</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">and</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Tansley" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;" title="Arthur Tansley"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Arthur Tansley</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">, were far removed from urban
centres where the concentration of pollution and environmental degradation is
located. Palamar (2008) notes an overshadowing by mainstream environmentalism
of pioneering women in the early 1900s who fought for urban health ecology and
brought about changes in environmental legislation. These women were precursors
to the more popularized environmental movements after the 1950s. In 1962,
marine biologist and ecologist</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Carson" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;" title="Rachel Carson"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Rachel Carson</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">'s book</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> </span><i style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_Spring" title="Silent Spring"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Silent Spring</span></a></i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">helped to mobilize the
environmental movement by alerting the public to toxic</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticides" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;" title="Pesticides"><span style="color: #0645ad;">pesticides</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">, such as</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDT" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;" title="DDT"><span style="color: #0645ad;">DDT</span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">,</span><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioaccumulation" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;" title="Bioaccumulation"><span style="color: #0645ad;">bioaccumulating</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">in the environment. Carson used
ecological science to link the release of environmental toxins to human and
ecosystem health. Since then, ecologists have worked to bridge their
understanding of the degradation of the planet's ecosystems with environmental
politics, law, restoration, and natural resources management. </span></div>
<br />
<div style="background: white; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<span lang="EN" style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; line-height: 115%;"></span><br />
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 0.05in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size: 13pt;">Hierarchical
ecology</span></span></h3>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The scale of ecological dynamics
can operate like a closed system, such as aphids migrating on a single tree,
while at the same time remain open with regard to broader scale influences,
such as atmosphere or climate. Hence, ecologists classify<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystems" title="Ecosystems"><span style="color: #0645ad;">ecosystems</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>hierarchically
by analyzing data collected from finer scale units, such as vegetation
associations, climate, and soil types, and integrate this information to
identify emergent patterns of uniform organization and processes that operate
on local to regional,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape"><span style="color: #0645ad;">landscape</span></a>, and chronological scales.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">To structure the study of ecology
into a conceptually manageable framework, the biological world is organized
into a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_classification" title="Biological classification"><span style="color: #0645ad;">nested hierarchy</span></a>,
ranging in scale from<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene" title="Gene"><span style="color: #0645ad;">genes</span></a>,
to cells, to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">tissues</span></a>, to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organs" title="Organs"><span style="color: #0645ad;">organs</span></a>, to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism" title="Organism"><span style="color: #0645ad;">organisms</span></a>, to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species"><span style="color: #0645ad;">species</span></a>, and up to the level of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere"><span style="color: #0645ad;">biosphere</span></a>.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>This
framework forms a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panarchy" title="Panarchy"><span style="color: #0645ad;">panarchy</span></a>and exhibits<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-linear" title="Non-linear"><span style="color: #0645ad;">non-linear</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>behaviours;
this means that "effect and cause are disproportionate, so that small
changes in critical variables, such as the numbers of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation"><span style="color: #0645ad;">nitrogen fixers</span></a>, can lead to disproportionate,
perhaps irreversible, changes in the system propertie<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 0.05in; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
<span class="mw-headline"><span style="font-size: 13pt;">Biodiversity</span></span><span style="font-size: 13pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></h3>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 14.25pt;">
<i><br /></i></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Biodiversity (an abbreviation of
"biological diversity") describes the diversity of life from genes to
ecosystems and spans every level of biological organization. The term has
several interpretations, and there are many ways to index, measure,
characterize, and represent its complex organization. Biodiversity includes<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity"><span style="color: #0645ad;">species diversity</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity"><span style="color: #0645ad;">ecosystem diversity</span></a>,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity"><span style="color: #0645ad;">genetic diversity</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and the complex processes operating at
and among these respective levels. Biodiversity plays an important role in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_health" title="Ecological health"><span style="color: #0645ad;">ecological health</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>as much as it does for human health.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Preventing<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction"><span style="color: #0645ad;">species extinctions</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is one way to preserve biodiversity,
but factors such as genetic diversity and migration routes are equally
important and are threatened on global scales. Conservation priorities and
management techniques require different approaches and considerations to
address the full ecological scope of biodiversity. Populations and species
migration, for example, are sensitive indicators of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_services" title="Ecosystem services"><span style="color: #0645ad;">ecosystem services</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>that sustain and contribute<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital"><span style="color: #0645ad;">natural capital</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>toward the well-being of humanity. An
understanding of biodiversity has practical application for ecosystem-based
conservation planners as they make ecologically responsible decisions in
management recommendations to consultant firms, governments, and industry. The
protected areas have been established under the protected area network across
the world for conservation of biodiversity<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 9.5pt; line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: 6pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology" target="_blank">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology</a></span></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-64942802427207364902012-11-10T19:04:00.000-08:002012-11-10T19:08:49.124-08:00Cellular respiration<br />
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><b><br /></b></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;"><b>Cellular respiration</b> is the set of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Metabolism">metabolic</a> reactions and processes that take place in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Organism">organisms</a> to convert <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy#Energy_and_life" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Energy">biochemical energy</a> from nutrients into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a> (ATP), and then release waste products. The reactions involved in respiration are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catabolism" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Catabolism">catabolic reactions</a>, which break large molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy in the process as they break high-energy bonds. Respiration is one of the key ways a cell gains useful energy to fuel cellular activity.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">Chemically, cellular respiration is considered an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exothermic_reaction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Exothermic reaction">exothermic</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Redox">redox reaction</a>. The overall reaction is broken into many smaller ones when it occurs in the body, most of which are redox reactions themselves. Although technically, cellular respiration is a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_reaction" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Combustion reaction">combustion reaction</a>, it clearly does not resemble one when it occurs in a living cell. This difference is because it occurs in many separate steps. While the overall reaction is a combustion, no single reaction that comprises it is a combustion reaction.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">Nutrients that are commonly used by animal and plant cells in respiration include <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Sugar">sugar</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acids" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acids" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Fatty acids">fatty acids</a>, and a common <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizing_agent" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Oxidizing agent">oxidizing agent</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_acceptor" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Electron acceptor">electron acceptor</a>) is molecular <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> (O<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>). The energy stored in ATP can then be used to drive processes requiring energy, including <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosynthesis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Biosynthesis">biosynthesis</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motion_(physics)#Cells" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Motion (physics)">locomotion</a> or transportation of molecules across <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Cell membrane">cell membranes</a>.<i>Aerobic respiration</i> requires <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in order to generate energy (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a>). Although <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrates" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Carbohydrates">carbohydrates</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fats" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Fats">fats</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Proteins">proteins</a> can all be processed and consumed as reactants, it is the preferred method of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Pyruvate">pyruvate</a> breakdown in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a> and requires that pyruvate enter the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondrion</a> in order to be fully oxidized by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Citric acid cycle">Krebs cycle</a>. The product of this process is energy in the form of ATP (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a>), by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate-level_phosphorylation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Substrate-level phosphorylation">substrate-level phosphorylation</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NADH" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="NADH">NADH</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FADH2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="FADH2"><span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-origin: initial;">FADH</span><sub style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; line-height: 1em; text-decoration: none;">2</sub></a></span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3lEr_OisUzuio_b1lmFuHwnF4lRmGjtQfjw7d1RaltiSq5f5rpwgqlCYdZ2W4BeUd1tc_QdR_SmUTSfxe9DK5B9hwBvOtjuqAktzvo9EXSwMLfC8PdMxEW6FNCptc4YY-it_MNuBAA94/s1600/CellRespiration.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="226" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3lEr_OisUzuio_b1lmFuHwnF4lRmGjtQfjw7d1RaltiSq5f5rpwgqlCYdZ2W4BeUd1tc_QdR_SmUTSfxe9DK5B9hwBvOtjuqAktzvo9EXSwMLfC8PdMxEW6FNCptc4YY-it_MNuBAA94/s320/CellRespiration.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;"><i><b>Aerobic respiration</b></i> requires <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in order to generate energy (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a>). Although <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrates" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Carbohydrates">carbohydrates</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fats" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Fats">fats</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Proteins">proteins</a> can all be processed and consumed as reactants, it is the preferred method of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Pyruvate">pyruvate</a> breakdown in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a> and requires that pyruvate enter the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondrion</a> in order to be fully oxidized by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Citric acid cycle">Krebs cycle</a>. The product of this process is energy in the form of ATP (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a>), by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate-level_phosphorylation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Substrate-level phosphorylation">substrate-level phosphorylation</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NADH" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="NADH">NADH</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FADH2" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="FADH2">FADH<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub></a></span></div>
<table style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px;"><tbody>
<tr><td rowspan="2"><b><span style="color: blue;">Simplified reaction:</span></b></td><td><span style="color: blue;">C<sub style="line-height: 1em;">6</sub>H<sub style="line-height: 1em;">12</sub>O<sub style="line-height: 1em;">6</sub> (s) + 6 O<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> (g) → 6 CO<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> (g) + 6 H<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>O (l) + heat</span></td></tr>
<tr><td><span style="color: blue;">ΔG = -2880 kJ per mole of C<sub style="line-height: 1em;">6</sub>H<sub style="line-height: 1em;">12</sub>O<sub style="line-height: 1em;">6</sub></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">The negative ΔG indicates that the reaction can occur spontaneously.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">The reducing potential of NADH and FADH<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> is converted to more ATP through an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Electron transport chain">electron transport chain</a> with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Oxidative phosphorylation">oxidative phosphorylation</a>. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemiosmotic_potential" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Chemiosmotic potential">chemiosmotic potential</a> by pumping <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Proton">protons</a> across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_diphosphate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Adenosine diphosphate">ADP</a> and a phosphate group. Biology textbooks often state that 38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 34 from the electron transport system).However, this maximum yield is never quite reached due to losses (leaky membranes) as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondria's matrix and current estimates range around 29 to 30 ATP per glucose.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">Aerobic metabolism is up to 15 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 molecules ATP per 1 molecule glucose). They share the initial pathway of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a> but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic cells</a>, and in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplasm" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prokaryote" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotic cells</a>.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2yZPeSp9BTueNjfqwU56wT4GmNMThpj5ZmHCHdAq6bdmm3jdAttcyF__QKALkqOLSiW3xgN8nfwa79wqbEUXTeDVmL9GT19te2v__cf_oI8rI1DeyrS1DjgiVYOXbZCihwBW7qoscP1c/s1600/515px-Auto-and_heterotrophs.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2yZPeSp9BTueNjfqwU56wT4GmNMThpj5ZmHCHdAq6bdmm3jdAttcyF__QKALkqOLSiW3xgN8nfwa79wqbEUXTeDVmL9GT19te2v__cf_oI8rI1DeyrS1DjgiVYOXbZCihwBW7qoscP1c/s320/515px-Auto-and_heterotrophs.png" width="275" /></a></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;">
</div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="color: blue;"><b>Glycolysis</b> is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic pathway</a> that takes place in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytosol" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Cytosol">cytosol</a> of cells in all living organisms. This pathway does not require oxygen, and can therefore function under anaerobic conditions. The process converts one molecule of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucose" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Glucose">glucose</a> into two molecules of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Pyruvate">pyruvate</a>(pyruvic acid), generating energy in the form of two net molecules of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a>. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced; however, two are consumed as part of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis#Preparatory_phase" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Glycolysis">preparatory phase</a>. The initial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorylation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Phosphorylation">phosphorylation</a> of glucose is required to destabilize the molecule for cleavage into two <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Pyruvate">pyruvate</a>. During the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis#Pay-off_phase" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Glycolysis">pay-off phase</a> of glycolysis, four <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> groups are transferred to ADP by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate-level_phosphorylation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Substrate-level phosphorylation">substrate-level phosphorylation</a> to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Pyruvate">pyruvate</a> are oxidized. The overall reaction can be expressed this way:</span></div>
<dl style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em; text-align: -webkit-auto;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><span style="color: blue;">Glucose + 2 NAD<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> + 2 P<sub style="line-height: 1em;">i</sub> + 2 ADP → 2 <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Pyruvate">pyruvate</a> + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> + 2 H<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>O + heat</span></dd></dl>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<span style="color: blue;">Starting with glucose, 1 ATP is used to donate a phosphate to glucose to produce glucose 6-phosphate. Glycogen can change into glucose 6-phosphate as well with the help of glycogen phosphorylase. During Energy metabolism, glucose 6-phosphate turns into fructose 6-phosphate. An additional ATP is used to phosphorylate fructose 6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-disphosphate by the help of phosphofructokinase. Fructose 1,6-diphosphate then splits into two phosphorylated molecules with three carbon chains that later degrades into pyruvate.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiomWAHOAy2pow1ZtYH0OfK_v-0xLhB2ovPMWbKKL36RJEoRxuXfSNpbtllTFNygI2z3g1286jMGDmQhCRVRsnAlGgJl1z9tFeeZAA333oRusvdKhAZMW83r7P2hmoK_RLOUzZwd1Ntxn8/s1600/800px-Respiration_diagram.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiomWAHOAy2pow1ZtYH0OfK_v-0xLhB2ovPMWbKKL36RJEoRxuXfSNpbtllTFNygI2z3g1286jMGDmQhCRVRsnAlGgJl1z9tFeeZAA333oRusvdKhAZMW83r7P2hmoK_RLOUzZwd1Ntxn8/s320/800px-Respiration_diagram.png" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em; text-align: -webkit-auto;">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
</div>
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-size: 17px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Oxidative_decarboxylation_of_pyruvate" style="color: blue;">Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate</span></h3>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA and CO<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvate_dehydrogenase_complex" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex">pyruvate dehydrogenase complex</a> (PDC). The PDC contains multiple copies of three enzymes and is located in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_matrix" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Mitochondrial matrix">mitochondria</a> of eukaryotic cells and in the cytosol of prokaryotes. In the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, one molecule of NADH and one molecule of CO<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> is formed. This step is also known as the <i>link reaction</i> or <i>transition step</i>, as it links glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Citric acid cycle</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">This is also called the <i>Krebs cycle</i> or the <i>tricarboxylic acid cycle</i>. When oxygen is present, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetyl-CoA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Acetyl-CoA">acetyl-CoA</a> is produced from the pyruvate molecules created from glycolysis. Once acetyl-CoA is formed, two processes can occur, aerobic or anaerobic respiration. When oxygen is present, the mitochondria will undergo aerobic respiration which leads to the Krebs cycle. However, if oxygen is not present, fermentation of the pyruvate molecule will occur. In the presence of oxygen, when <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetyl-CoA" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Acetyl-CoA">acetyl-CoA</a> is produced, the molecule then enters the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Citric acid cycle">citric acid cycle</a> (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and gets oxidized to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub></a> while at the same time reducing <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide">NAD</a> to <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NADH" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="NADH">NADH</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NADH" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="NADH">NADH</a> can be used by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Electron transport chain">electron transport chain</a> to create further <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a> as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_waste_product" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Cellular waste product">waste products</a>, H<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>O and CO<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>, are created during this cycle.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">The citric acid cycle is an 8-step process involving different enzymes and co-enzymes. Throughout the entire cycle, acetyl-CoA(2 carbons) + Oxaloacetate(4 carbons). Citrate(6 carbons) is rearranged to a more reactive form called Isocitrate(6 carbons). Isocitrate(6 carbons) modifies to become α-Ketoglutarate(5 carbons), Succinyl-CoA, Succinate, Fumarate, Malate, and finally, Oxaloacetate. The net energy gain from one cycle is 3 NADH, 1 FADH<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>, and 1 GTP; the GTP may subsequently be used to produce ATP. Thus, the total energy yield from one whole glucose molecule (2 pyruvate molecules) is 6 NADH, 2 FADH<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>, and 2 ATP.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
</div>
<h3 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: initial; border-bottom-style: none; border-bottom-width: initial; font-size: 17px; margin-bottom: 0.3em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Oxidative_phosphorylation" style="color: blue;">Oxidative phosphorylation</span></h3>
<span style="color: blue;"><br /></span>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crista" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Crista">cristae</a>. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_gradient" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Proton gradient">proton gradient</a> (chemiosmotic potential) across the inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesised by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP. The electrons are finally transferred to exogenous oxygen and, with the addition of two protons, water is formed.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
</div>
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Efficiency_of_ATP_production" style="color: blue;">Efficiency of ATP production</span></h2>
<span style="color: blue;"><br /></span>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">The table below describes the reactions involved when one glucose molecule is fully oxidized into carbon dioxide. It is assumed that all the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_(chemistry)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Reduction (chemistry)">reduced</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coenzyme" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Coenzyme">coenzymes</a> are oxidized by the electron transport chain and used for oxidative phosphorylation.</span></div>
<table class="wikitable" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-collapse: collapse; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">Step</span></th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">coenzyme yield</span></th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">ATP yield</span></th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">Source of ATP</span></th></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 3px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><span style="color: blue;">Glycolysis preparatory phase</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 3px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 3px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">-2</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 3px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><span style="color: blue;">Phosphorylation of glucose and fructose 6-phosphate uses two ATP from the cytoplasm.</span></td></tr>
<tr><td rowspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><span style="color: blue;">Glycolysis pay-off phase</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">4</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><span style="color: blue;">Substrate-level phosphorylation</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">2 NADH</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">4–6</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><span style="color: blue;">Oxidative phosphorylation – Each NADH produces net 2 ATP due to NADH transport over the mitochondrial membrane</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><span style="color: blue;">Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">2 NADH</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">6</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><span style="color: blue;">Oxidative phosphorylation</span></td></tr>
<tr><td rowspan="3" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><span style="color: blue;">Krebs cycle</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">2</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><span style="color: blue;">Substrate-level phosphorylation</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">6 NADH</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">18</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><span style="color: blue;">Oxidative phosphorylation</span></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">2 FADH<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub></span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><span style="color: blue;">4</span></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><span style="color: blue;">Oxidative phosphorylation</span></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 3px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: blue;">Total yield</span></b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 3px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em; text-align: center;"><b><span style="color: blue;">36–38 ATP</span></b></td><td style="border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-left-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-top-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 3px; padding-bottom: 0.2em; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; padding-top: 0.2em;"><span style="color: blue;">From the complete oxidation of one glucose molecule to carbon dioxide and oxidation of all the reduced coenzymes.</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">Although there is a theoretical yield of 38 ATP molecules per glucose during cellular respiration, such conditions are generally not realized due to losses such as the cost of moving pyruvate (from glycolysis), phosphate, and ADP (substrates for ATP synthesis) into the mitochondria. All are actively transported using carriers that utilise the stored energy in the proton <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemical_gradient" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Electrochemical gradient">electrochemical gradient</a>.</span></div>
<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;">Pyruvate is taken up by a specific, low km transporter to bring it into the mitochondrial matrix for oxidation by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;">The <b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLC25A3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="SLC25A3">phosphate carrier</a></b> (PiC) mediates the electroneutral exchange (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiporter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Antiporter">antiport</a>) of phosphate H<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>PO<sub style="line-height: 1em;">4</sub><sup style="line-height: 1em;">-</sup> (Pi) for OH<sup style="line-height: 1em;">-</sup> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symporter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Symporter">symport</a> of phosphate and protons H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> across the inner membrane and the driving force for moving phosphate ions into the mitochondria is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemiosmosis#proton_motive_force" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Chemiosmosis">proton motive force</a>.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;">The <b><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP-ADP_translocase" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="ATP-ADP translocase">ATP-ADP translocase</a></b> (also called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenine_nucleotide_translocator" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Adenine nucleotide translocator">adenine nucleotide translocase, ANT</a>) is an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiporter" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Antiporter">antiporter</a> and exchanges ADP and ATP across the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_membrane" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Inner membrane">inner membrane</a>. The driving force is due to the ATP (−4) having a more negative charge than the ADP (−3) and thus it dissipates some of the electrical component of the proton electrochemical gradient.</span></li>
</ul>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">The outcome of these transport processes using the proton electrochemical gradient is that more than 3 H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> are needed to make 1 ATP. Obviously this reduces the theoretical efficiency of the whole process and the likely maximum is closer to 28–30 ATP molecules.In practice the efficiency may be even lower due to the inner membrane of the mitochondria being slightly leaky to protons.Other factors may also dissipate the proton gradient creating an apparently leaky mitochondria. An uncoupling protein known as<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermogenin" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Thermogenin">thermogenin</a> is expressed in some cell types and is a channel that can transport protons. When this protein is active in the inner membrane it short circuits the coupling between the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Electron transport chain">electron transport chain</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_synthase" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="ATP synthase">ATP synthesis</a>. The potential energy from the proton gradient is not used to make ATP but generates heat. This is particularly important in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_adipose_tissue" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Brown adipose tissue">brown fat</a>thermogenesis of newborn and hibernating plants.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_mIFCzYwwFAcYBS3B4kXx7RbxfUDQ6kNcZtzJmJxASfbs-G-CzGqXn-PstZM7_lyQwyryJHhQcHCT261eS1wIqTxSP10z45NqPZiVkuZw36ITpu1r8zbCkGdPsF2jbbEehfxETdfQJf8/s1600/Cellular_respiration.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="color: blue;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_mIFCzYwwFAcYBS3B4kXx7RbxfUDQ6kNcZtzJmJxASfbs-G-CzGqXn-PstZM7_lyQwyryJHhQcHCT261eS1wIqTxSP10z45NqPZiVkuZw36ITpu1r8zbCkGdPsF2jbbEehfxETdfQJf8/s320/Cellular_respiration.gif" width="317" /></span></a></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
</div>
<ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;">ATP : NADH+H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> and ATP : FADH<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> ratios during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Oxidative phosphorylation">oxidative phosphorylation</a> appear to be not 3 and 2, but 2.5 and 1.5 respectively. Unlike in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate-level_phosphorylation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Substrate-level phosphorylation">substrate-level phosphorylation</a>, the stoichiometry here is difficult to establish.</span><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_synthase" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="ATP synthase">ATP synthase</a> produces 1 ATP / 3 H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup>. However the exchange of matrix ATP for cytosolic ADP and Pi (antiport with OH<sup style="line-height: 1em;">-</sup> or symport with H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup>) mediated by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP%E2%80%93ADP_translocase" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="ATP–ADP translocase">ATP–ADP translocase</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLC25A3" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="SLC25A3">phosphate carrier</a> consumes 1 H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> / 1 ATP due to regeneration of the transmembrane potential changed during this transfer, so the net ratio is 1 ATP / 4 H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup>.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;">The mitochondrial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Electron transport chain">electron transport chain</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proton_pump" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Proton pump">proton pump</a> transfers across the inner membrane 10 H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> / 1 NADH+H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> (4+2+4) or 6 H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup>/ 1 FADH<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> (2+4).</span></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<dl style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;"><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><span style="color: blue;">So the final stoichiometry is</span></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><span style="color: blue;">1 NADH+H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> : 10 H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> : 10/4 ATP = 1 NADH+H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> : 2.5 ATP</span></dd><dd style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.1em; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px;"><span style="color: blue;">1 FADH<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> : 6 H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> : 6/4 ATP = 1 FADH<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> : 1.5 ATP</span></dd></dl>
<ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;">ATP : NADH+H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> coming from glycolysis ratio during the oxidative phosphorylation is</span><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;">1.5 like for FADH<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> if hydrogen atoms (2H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup>+2e<sup style="line-height: 1em;">-</sup>) are transferred from cytosolic NADH+H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> to mitochondrial FAD by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerol_phosphate_shuttle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Glycerol phosphate shuttle">glycerol phosphate shuttle</a> located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;">2.5 in case of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malate-aspartate_shuttle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Malate-aspartate shuttle">malate-aspartate shuttle</a> transferring hydrogen atoms from cytosolic NADH+H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> to mitochondrial NAD<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup></span></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">So finally we have / 1 molecule of glucose</span></div>
<ul style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate-level_phosphorylation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Substrate-level phosphorylation">Substrate-level phosphorylation</a>: 2 ATP from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a> + 2 ATP (directly GTP) from <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krebs_cycle" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Krebs cycle">Krebs cycle</a></span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Oxidative phosphorylation"><span style="color: blue;">Oxidative phosphorylation</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: square; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 1.6em; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0.3em; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;">2 NADH+H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> from glycolysis: 2 × 1.5 ATP (if glycerol phosphate shuttle transfers hydrogen atoms) or 2 × 2.5 ATP (malate-aspartate shuttle)</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;">2 NADH+H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyruvate_decarboxylation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Pyruvate decarboxylation">oxidative decaboxylation of pyruvate</a> and 6 from Krebs cycle: 8 × 2.5 ATP</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span style="color: blue;">2 FADH<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub> from the Krebs cycle: 2 × 1.5 ATP</span></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">Altogether it gives 4 + 3 (or 5) + 20 + 3 = 30 (or 32) ATP / 1 molecule of glucose</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">The total ATP yield in ethanol or lactid acid <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">fermentation</a> is only 2 molecules coming from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a>, because pyruvate is not transferred to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrion" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondrion</a> and finally oxidized to the carbon dioxide (CO<sub style="line-height: 1em;">2</sub>), but reduced to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Ethanol fermentation">ethanol</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acid_fermentation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Lactic acid fermentation">lactic acid</a> in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplasm" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a>. These simple additional reactions are not energy source, but only regenerate for glycolysis NAD<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup>from NADH+H<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup>, which can't be converted back to NAD<sup style="line-height: 1em;">+</sup> in the mitochondrial <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Electron transport chain">electron transport chain</a> inactive in anaerobic conditions, normally main source of ATP.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
</div>
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Fermentation" style="color: blue;">Fermentation</span></h2>
<span style="color: blue;"><br /></span>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">
<span style="color: blue;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">Without oxygen, pyruvate (pyruvic acid) is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_waste_product" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Cellular waste product">waste products</a> that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the electron carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. Fermentation oxidizes NADH to NAD+ so it can be re-used in glycolysis. In the absence of oxygen, fermentation prevents the build up of NADH in the cytoplasm and provides NAD+ for glycolysis. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acid" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a>. This type of fermentation is called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acid_fermentation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Lactic acid fermentation">lactic acid fermentation</a>.In strenuous exercise, when energy demands exceed energy supply, the respiratory chain cannot process all of the hydrogen atoms joined by NADH. During anaerobic glycolysis, NAD+ regenerates when pairs of hydrogen combine with pyruvate to form lactate. Lactate formation is catalyzed by lactate dehyrdrogenase in a reversible reaction. Lactate can also be used as an indirect precursor for liver glycogen. During recovery, when oxygen becomes available, NAD+ attaches to hydrogen from lactate to form ATP. In yeast, the waste products are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Ethanol fermentation">ethanol fermentation</a>. The ATP generated in this process is made by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate-level_phosphorylation" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Substrate-level phosphorylation">substrate-level phosphorylation</a>, which does not require oxygen.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">Fermentation is less efficient at using the energy from glucose since only 2 ATP are produced per glucose, compared to the 38 ATP per glucose produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_waste_product" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Cellular waste product">waste products</a> of fermentation still contain plenty of energy. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Ethanol">Ethanol</a>, for example, can be used in gasoline (petrol) solutions. Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. For multicellular organisms, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use fermentation to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so fermentation may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprint_(running)" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Sprint (running)">sprinting</a>.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
</div>
<h2 style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin-bottom: 0.6em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; overflow-x: hidden; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Anaerobic_respiration" style="color: blue;">Anaerobic respiration</span></h2>
<span style="color: blue;"><br /></span>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; font-style: italic; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">
<span style="color: blue;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidised in the presence of an inorganic electron acceptor (such as oxygen) to produce large amounts of energy, to drive the bulk production of ATP.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;"><b>Anaerobic respiration</b> is used by some microorganisms in which neither oxygen (aerobic respiration) nor pyruvate derivatives (fermentation) is the final electron acceptor. Rather, an inorganic acceptor such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Sulfate">sulfate</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrate" style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: initial; background-image: none; background-origin: initial; text-decoration: none;" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> is used.</span></div>
<div style="background-color: white; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 19px; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<span style="color: blue;">Many high-school biology textbooks incorrectly refer to fermentation (e.g., to lactate) as anaerobic respiration.</span></div>
<br />
<br />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0Surabaya, Indonesia-7.289166 112.734398-7.415169 112.5764695 -7.163163 112.8923265tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2076420558133203637.post-41381666371410912442012-11-06T02:08:00.003-08:002012-11-06T02:08:57.127-08:00<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmUqrAQhfQXF7b9UONQaAU32fq2zq2pc2hushUGmjzrWJ4gyobhptQQ72fWMaU3HBojlA2ZY8dg4fWHzy9P11zPuuORTe20_kFms_CZRgBHtz3o8dCpGtMiWTuvK3l2-xcQA9CJ5G-V3c/s1600/kumbung-jamur-tiram-200x150.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmUqrAQhfQXF7b9UONQaAU32fq2zq2pc2hushUGmjzrWJ4gyobhptQQ72fWMaU3HBojlA2ZY8dg4fWHzy9P11zPuuORTe20_kFms_CZRgBHtz3o8dCpGtMiWTuvK3l2-xcQA9CJ5G-V3c/s1600/kumbung-jamur-tiram-200x150.jpg" /></a></div>
Menekuni <a href="http://bisnisukm.com/tag/bisnis" target="_blank" title="bisnis">bisnis</a>
budidaya jamur tiram memang sangat menguntungkan. Tingginya permintaan
pasar dan mudahnya proses budidaya jamur tiram menjadi salah satu alasan
mengapa jenis jamur ini lebih sering dibudidayakan masyarakat
dibandingkan jenis jamur lainnya. Meskipun begitu, sampai hari ini ada
sebuah kendala yang sering dihadapi para pemula dalam menjalankan bisnis
budidaya jamur tiram. Yaitu faktor pemilihan lokasi budidaya yang
sesuai dengan habitat hidup jamur tersebut.<span id="more-14344"></span>
<br />
Biasanya pertumbuhan jamur tiram akan optimal sepanjang tahun bila
lokasi budidayanya sesuai dengan habitat aslinya, yakni di kawasan
pegunungan atau di daerah dataran dengan ketinggian antara 400-800 meter
di atas permukaan air laut (mdpl), serta memiliki suhu udara sekitar
20-28°C dengan tingkat kelembapan sekitar 70% sampai 80%. Lalu bisakah
jamur tiram dibudidayakan di daerah panas?<br />
Bagi Anda yang berada di daerah dataran rendah khususnya di
lingkungan yang cukup panas, kini tidak perlu takut lagi untuk mencoba
budidaya jamur tiram. Sebab ada banyak cara yang bisa Anda lakukan untuk
menyiasati kondisi lingkungan di sekitar Anda. Untuk mengetahui
informasi selengkapnya, mari kita bahas bersama beberapa <a href="http://bisnisukm.com/tag/tips-bisnis" target="_blank" title="tips bisnis">tips bisnis</a> yang bisa Anda gunakan untuk membudidayakan jamur tiram di daerah panas.<br />
<strong>Pertama</strong>, langkah mudah yang bisa Anda coba yaitu
membuat bangunan kumbung jamur dengan sistem sirkulasi buka tutup. Yang
dimaksud buka tutup disini adalah menutup sirkulasi kumbung jamur di
siang hari agar kelembapan di dalamnya tetap terjaga, dan membukanya
pada malam hari sehingga suhu ruangan di dalam kumbung jamur bisa lebih
dingin.<br />
<strong>Kedua</strong>, gunakan bahan atap yang tidak menyerap panas.
Hal ini penting agar intensitas sinar matahari yang masuk ke dalam
kumbung jamur tidak berlebihan. Beberapa bahan yang bisa Anda gunakan
sebagai atap kumbung jamur antara lain anyaman bambu, atau genteng.<br />
<strong>Ketiga</strong>, faktor kelembapan merupakan syarat utama
yang harus terpenuhi dalam budidaya jamur tiram, sebab kelembapan udara
sangat berpengaruh pada pertumbuhan jamur. Untuk mengatasi hal tersebut,
Anda bisa meletakkan beberapa tong/wadah air di dalam kumbung jamur
untuk meningkatkan kelembapan ruangan.<a href="http://bisnisukm.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/budidaya-jamur-tiram.jpg"></a><strong> </strong><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifEterOIMTg_QL9PKjJW2y_lM1J2Xa3PpmHuJUaxtWyUjlMFBwQkU2xTZMgp-Tyxkok4U2eLxSwNsvGt0c1bmZvoTTshQOHTjWBAKu1xiT36cdeeLU3SNgv4D4GWhy0g6s21Nwhq6ERXI/s1600/budidaya-jamur-tiram-200x149.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEifEterOIMTg_QL9PKjJW2y_lM1J2Xa3PpmHuJUaxtWyUjlMFBwQkU2xTZMgp-Tyxkok4U2eLxSwNsvGt0c1bmZvoTTshQOHTjWBAKu1xiT36cdeeLU3SNgv4D4GWhy0g6s21Nwhq6ERXI/s1600/budidaya-jamur-tiram-200x149.jpg" /></a></div>
<strong>Keempat</strong>, karena lokasi <a href="http://bisnisukm.com/pelatihan-budidaya-jamur.html" target="_blank" title="pelatihan budidaya jamur">budidaya jamur</a>
berada di daerah panas, maka usahakan untuk membuat bangunan kumbung di
tempat yang teduh atau dekat dengan pepohonan. Selain itu hindari pula
pembuatan pintu kumbung yang berada di arah matahari terbit atau
terbenam, hal ini dilakukan untuk mencegah sinar matahari langsung masuk
ke ruangan kumbung.<br />
<strong>Kelima</strong>, lindungi sekitar lokasi kumbung dari sinar
matahari langsung yang terlalu menyengat. Anda bisa melakukannya dengan
cara menanam banyak pohon rindang (perdu) disekeliling kumbung jamur.<br />
<strong>Keenam</strong>, untuk memperlancar sirkulasi udara di dalam
kumbung jamur tiram, usahakan tinggi bangunan kumbung dibuat lebih
tinggi atau tidak kurang dari 4 meter.<br />
<strong>Ketujuh</strong>, perhatikan rak penyimpanan baglog jamur
yang dibuat. Bila di daerah dingin rak yang dibuat pada kumbung jamur
bisa mencapai 5 tingkat, pastikan rak yang dibuat di daerah panas tidak
lebih dari 3 tingkat.<br />
<strong>Kedelapan</strong>, karena lokasi kumbung jamur berada di
daerah panas, maka sebisa mungkin lakukan penyiraman lebih sering
dibandingkan di daerah pegunungan. Penyiraman baglog jamur bisa Anda
lakukan minimal 3 kali dalam sehari.<br />
Nah, dengan demikian Anda tidak perlu khawatir jika ingin
mmbudidayakan jamur tiram tetapi daerah Anda merupakan daerah yang
panas. Silahkan mencoba <a href="http://bisnisukm.com/peluang-bisnis-jamur-tumbuh-makin-subur.html" target="_blank" title="peluang bisnis jamur tumbuh makin subur">peluang bisnis jamur</a> dimanapun Anda tinggal. Mulai dari yang kecil, mulai dari yang mudah, mulai dari sekarang! Salam sukses.<br />
<br />
<br />
<a href="http://sumarsih07.files.wordpress.com/2010/01/di-kumbung-jamur.jpg">http://sumarsih07.files.wordpress.com/2010/01/di-kumbung-jamur.jpg</a>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14761908153821513734noreply@blogger.com0